法案是指有提案權(quán)的主體向有立法權(quán)的國家機(jī)關(guān)所提出的有關(guān)制定、修改和廢止規(guī)范性法律文件的建議，包括法律案、行政法規(guī)案、地方性法規(guī)案、規(guī)章案等。法案一般包括有關(guān)草案,其中法律案應(yīng)當(dāng)包括法律草案。也就是說，在全國人民代表大會上，提出法律案的人必須提， 以下是為大家整理的關(guān)于莫里爾法案名詞解釋6篇 , 供大家參考選擇。
莫里爾法案名詞解釋6篇
名詞解釋名詞解釋名詞解釋名詞解釋
1.募集設(shè)立：又稱漸次設(shè)立，是指由發(fā)起人認(rèn)購公司應(yīng)發(fā)行股份的一部分，其余股份向社會募集或者向特定對象募集而設(shè)立的公司。
2.公司債券：是指公司依照法定程序發(fā)行、約定在一定期限還本付息的有價證券。 可轉(zhuǎn)換公司債券：是指依照法定程序發(fā)行，在一定期間內(nèi)依據(jù)約定的條件可以轉(zhuǎn)換成股票的公司債券。
3.有限責(zé)任公司：是指根據(jù)公司法設(shè)立的，公司以其全部財產(chǎn)對公司的債務(wù)承擔(dān)責(zé)任，股東以其認(rèn)繳的出資額為限對公司承擔(dān)責(zé)任的企業(yè)法人。
4.國有獨(dú)資公司：是指國家單獨(dú)出資、由國務(wù)院或者地方人民政府委托本級人民政府國有資產(chǎn)監(jiān)督管理機(jī)構(gòu)履行出資人職責(zé)的有限責(zé)任公司。 一人有限責(zé)任公司：是指只有一個自然人股東或者一個法人股東的有限責(zé)任公司。
5.股份有限公司：是指依照公司法設(shè)立的，全部資本分為等額股份，公司以其全部財產(chǎn)對公司的債務(wù)承擔(dān)責(zé)任，股東以其認(rèn)購的股份為限對公司承擔(dān)責(zé)任的企業(yè)法人。
6.上市公司：是指其股票在證券交易所上市交易的股份有限公司。
6.關(guān)聯(lián)關(guān)系：是指公司控股股東、實際控制人、董事、監(jiān)事、高級管理人員與其直接或者間接控制的企業(yè)之間的關(guān)系，以及可能導(dǎo)致公司利益轉(zhuǎn)移的其他關(guān)系。
7.企業(yè)破產(chǎn)制度：是指在債務(wù)人不能清償?shù)狡趥鶆?wù)的情況下，在法院的主持下，將債務(wù)人的全部財產(chǎn)集中起來對債務(wù)人進(jìn)行公平清償?shù)闹贫取?
8.債權(quán)人會議：是指在人民法院受理破產(chǎn)案件后，為保障債權(quán)人的合法權(quán)益、表達(dá)債權(quán)人的意志和統(tǒng)一債權(quán)人的意見而由已申報債權(quán)的債權(quán)人組成的臨時性機(jī)構(gòu)。
9.債務(wù)人的財產(chǎn)：是指破產(chǎn)申請受理時屬于債務(wù)人的全部財產(chǎn)，以及破產(chǎn)申請受理后至破產(chǎn)程序終結(jié)前債務(wù)人取得的財產(chǎn)。
10.別除權(quán)：是指破產(chǎn)宣告前依法成立的對破產(chǎn)人的特定財產(chǎn)享有擔(dān)保權(quán)的人享有不依賴破產(chǎn)程序，就該特定財產(chǎn)優(yōu)先受償?shù)臋?quán)利。
11.一般取回權(quán)：是指人民法院受理破產(chǎn)申請后，對于債務(wù)人占有的不屬于債務(wù)人的財產(chǎn)，該財產(chǎn)的權(quán)利享有的向管理人取回該財產(chǎn)的權(quán)利。
12.出賣人取回權(quán)：是指人民法院受理破產(chǎn)申請時，出賣人已將買賣標(biāo)的物向作為買受人的債務(wù)人發(fā)運(yùn)，債務(wù)人尚未收到且未付清全部價款時，出賣人享有的取回在運(yùn)途中標(biāo)的物的權(quán)利。
13.抵消權(quán)：是指債務(wù)人在破產(chǎn)申請受理后，在立案前與債務(wù)人互負(fù)債務(wù)的債權(quán)人享有的不依破產(chǎn)程序，而以其對該債務(wù)人的債權(quán)和所欠債務(wù)在對等數(shù)額內(nèi)相互抵消的權(quán)利。
14.重整：是在企業(yè)無力償債但有復(fù)蘇希望的情況下，經(jīng)債權(quán)人同意，允許企業(yè)繼續(xù)經(jīng)營，實現(xiàn)債務(wù)調(diào)整和企業(yè)重組，使企業(yè)擺脫困境、走向復(fù)興的一項制度。
15.破產(chǎn)和解：是指人民法院受理和解申請或破產(chǎn)申請后、宣告?zhèn)鶆?wù)人破產(chǎn)前，債務(wù)人和債權(quán)人會議就債務(wù)人延期清償債務(wù)、減少債務(wù)數(shù)額等事項達(dá)成和解協(xié)議，經(jīng)人民法院認(rèn)定后，終止破產(chǎn)程序的一種制度。
16.破產(chǎn)宣告：是指人民法院對符合破產(chǎn)條件的債權(quán)人，依法作出裁定，宣告?zhèn)鶆?wù)人破產(chǎn)實施清算的行為。
17.格式條款：是一方當(dāng)事人為了重復(fù)使用而預(yù)先擬定，并在訂立合同時未與對方協(xié)商的條款。
18.承諾：是指受要約人收到要約后按照要約所規(guī)定的時間和方式，用諾言或行動對要約表示完全同意的一種法律行為。
19.締約過失責(zé)任：是指締約人在訂立合同的過程中，因故意或過失違背誠實信用原則，給對方當(dāng)事人的利益造成損失所應(yīng)承擔(dān)的責(zé)任。
20.合同效力：是指已經(jīng)成立的合同在當(dāng)事人之間產(chǎn)生的法律效力。
21.效力待定合同：是指雖已成立，但因其主體有瑕疵，不完全滿足有效要件的規(guī)定，致使其效力不確定的合同。 可變更或撤銷的合同：是指合同訂立后，因意思表示不真實，可由當(dāng)事人行使撤銷權(quán)使其歸于無效，或行使變更權(quán)使其內(nèi)容變更的合同。
22.合同履行：是指合同生效后，當(dāng)事人按照法律規(guī)定或者合同約定，全面、適當(dāng)?shù)芈男泻贤x務(wù)的行為。
23.提存：是指債務(wù)人將到期后因債權(quán)人原因無法清償?shù)臉?biāo)的物交有關(guān)部門保存，以消滅合同關(guān)系的行為。
24.違約責(zé)任：是指合同當(dāng)事人違反有效合同的約定，不履行或不安全履行合同義務(wù)，所應(yīng)承擔(dān)的法律責(zé)任。
25.擔(dān)保：是指在民商事法律關(guān)系中發(fā)生的，保證債務(wù)人清償債務(wù)，債權(quán)人實現(xiàn)債權(quán)的法律制度。
26.反擔(dān)保：是指第三人為債務(wù)人向債權(quán)人提供擔(dān)保時，債務(wù)人應(yīng)第三人的要求而為第三人所提供的擔(dān)保。
27.保證：是指保證人和債權(quán)人約定，當(dāng)債務(wù)人不履行債務(wù)時，保證人按約定向債權(quán)人履行債務(wù)或承擔(dān)責(zé)任的行為。
28.一般保證合同：是指當(dāng)事人在合同中約定，只有在債務(wù)人不履行債務(wù)時，才由保證人承擔(dān)保證責(zé)任的合同。
29.連帶責(zé)任保證合同：是指當(dāng)事人在合同中約定，保證人對債務(wù)人的債務(wù)承擔(dān)連帶責(zé)任的合同。在這種合同中只要債務(wù)人到期未履行債務(wù)，債權(quán)人就可以要求保證人在其保證的范圍內(nèi)承擔(dān)保證責(zé)任。
30.抵押：是指債務(wù)人或者第三人不轉(zhuǎn)移對自己特定財產(chǎn)的占有，約定將該財產(chǎn)作為債權(quán)的擔(dān)保，當(dāng)債務(wù)人不履行債務(wù)時，或者發(fā)生當(dāng)事人約定的實現(xiàn)抵押權(quán)的情形時，債權(quán)人有權(quán)依法將該財產(chǎn)折價、變賣或拍賣，并就所得價款優(yōu)先受償。
31.質(zhì)押：是指為擔(dān)保債務(wù)的履行，債務(wù)人或者第三人將其財產(chǎn)或權(quán)利出質(zhì)給債權(quán)人占有，將該財產(chǎn)作為擔(dān)保，在債務(wù)人不履行到期債務(wù)或者發(fā)生當(dāng)事人約定的實現(xiàn)質(zhì)權(quán)的情形，債權(quán)人有權(quán)就該質(zhì)押財產(chǎn)折價或者拍賣、變賣，并就其賣得價款優(yōu)先受償?shù)膿?dān)保制度。
32.留置：是指債務(wù)人不按照合同約定的期限履行債務(wù)，債權(quán)人可以扣留已經(jīng)合法占有的債務(wù)人的動產(chǎn)，經(jīng)過約定的或法律規(guī)定的一定的寬限期債務(wù)人仍不履行債務(wù)的，債權(quán)人有權(quán)就該動產(chǎn)優(yōu)先受償?shù)膿?dān)保制度。
33.定金：是合同當(dāng)事人一方預(yù)先交付給另一方貨幣作為債權(quán)的擔(dān)保。
34.證券：是指發(fā)行人依法發(fā)行的表示持券人享有的某種特定權(quán)利的憑證。 證券登記結(jié)算機(jī)構(gòu)：是為證券交易提供集中登記、存管與結(jié)算服務(wù)，不以營利為目的的法人。
35.證券發(fā)行：是指發(fā)行人依照法定條件和程序向社會公眾或特定的人出售證券的法律行為。 上市公司的收購：是指投資者通過購買上市目標(biāo)公司股票，以取得對目標(biāo)公司的管理權(quán)或者控制權(quán)，進(jìn)而實現(xiàn)對目標(biāo)公司的兼并或?qū)崿F(xiàn)其他產(chǎn)權(quán)性交易行為。
36.要約收購：是指收購人通過向目標(biāo)的管理層和目標(biāo)公司的股東發(fā)出購買其所持該公司股份的書面意思表達(dá)，并按照其依法公告的收購要約所規(guī)定的收購條件、收購價格、收購期限以及其他規(guī)定事項，收購目標(biāo)公司股份的收購方式。
37.協(xié)議收購：是指收購人與被收購的目標(biāo)公司股東依照法律、行政法規(guī)的規(guī)定，以協(xié)議方式進(jìn)行股份轉(zhuǎn)讓的收購方式。
38.票據(jù)：是出票人依票據(jù)法簽發(fā)的，約定由自己或委托付款人在見票時或者在票據(jù)指定的日期向收款人或者持票人無條件支付確定的金額的一種有價證券。
39.匯票：是出票人簽發(fā)的，委托付款人在見票時或者在指定日期無條件支付確定的金額給收款人或持票人的票據(jù)。
40.本票：是出票人簽發(fā)的，承諾自己在見票時無條件支付確定的金額給收款人或者持票人的票據(jù)。
41.支票：是出票人簽發(fā)的，委托辦理支票存款業(yè)務(wù)的銀行或者其他金融機(jī)構(gòu)在見票時無條件支付確定的金額給收款人或持票人的票據(jù)。
42.票據(jù)關(guān)系：是指票據(jù)當(dāng)事人之間，基于票據(jù)行為，在票據(jù)上所發(fā)生的法律上的債權(quán)債務(wù)關(guān)系。
43.非票據(jù)關(guān)系：是指票據(jù)關(guān)系以外的、與票據(jù)行為有關(guān)的當(dāng)事人之間依照法律的規(guī)定或當(dāng)事人的約定所發(fā)生的權(quán)利和義務(wù)關(guān)系。
44.狹義的票據(jù)行為：是指票據(jù)當(dāng)事人以發(fā)生票據(jù)債務(wù)為目的,并以在票據(jù)上簽章為權(quán)利義務(wù)成立要件的法律行為。
45.票據(jù)的偽造：是指無權(quán)限人假冒他人或虛構(gòu)他人名義簽章的行為。
46.票據(jù)的變造：是指沒有合法更改權(quán)的人在已成立的票據(jù)上變更簽章以外的記載事項的行為。
47.票據(jù)的更改：是指有更改權(quán)的人明示更改票據(jù)上記載事項的行為。
48.追索權(quán)：是指持票人在依法行使付款請求權(quán)而不能得到票款時，依法向票據(jù)的背書人、出票人以及匯票的其他債務(wù)人請求支付票據(jù)金額、利息和其他法定費(fèi)用的權(quán)利。
49.出票：是指出票人簽發(fā)票據(jù)并將其交付給收款人的票據(jù)行為。
50.背書：是指單上記載有關(guān)事項并簽章的票據(jù)行為。
51.涉外票據(jù)：是指出票、背書、承兌、保證、付款等行為中，既有發(fā)生在中華人民共和國境內(nèi)又有發(fā)生在中華人民共和境外的票據(jù)。
52.保險：是指投保人根據(jù)合同約定，向保險人支付保險費(fèi)，保險人對于合同約定的可能發(fā)生的事故因其發(fā)生所造成的財產(chǎn)損失承擔(dān)賠償保險金責(zé)任，或者當(dāng)被保險人死亡、傷殘、疾病或者達(dá)到合同約定的年齡、期限是承擔(dān)給付保險金責(zé)任的商業(yè)保險行為。
53.保險代理人：是根據(jù)保險人的委托，向保險人收取代理手續(xù)費(fèi)，并在保險人授權(quán)的范圍內(nèi)代為辦理保險業(yè)務(wù)的單位或個人。
54.保險經(jīng)紀(jì)人：是基于投保人的利益，為投保人與保險人訂立保險合同提供中介服務(wù)，并依法收取傭金的人。
55.財產(chǎn)保險合同：是以財產(chǎn)及其有關(guān)利益為保險標(biāo)的的保險合同，是投保人與保險人約定財產(chǎn)保險權(quán)利義務(wù)的協(xié)議。
56.代位求償權(quán)：是指如果保險事故的發(fā)生所導(dǎo)致的被保險人的損失是由于第三人造成的，被保險人有權(quán)向保險人請求賠償，但是被保險人在從保險人處獲得了賠償后，必須將對第三人的求償權(quán)讓渡給保險人。
57.人身保險合同：投保人向保險人支付保險費(fèi)，保險人對唄保險人在保險期間內(nèi)因保險單載明的意外事故、災(zāi)難及衰老等原因而導(dǎo)致被保險人死亡、疾病、喪失勞動能力或退休時，給付被保險人或受益人一定的保險金額的合同。
58.保險公司：是指投資人以營利為目的依法設(shè)立的，經(jīng)營保險業(yè)務(wù)的企業(yè)法人。
59.海商法：是調(diào)整海上運(yùn)輸關(guān)系、船舶關(guān)系的法律規(guī)范的總稱。
60.船舶所有權(quán)：是指船舶所有權(quán)人依法對其船舶享有占有、使用、收益和處分的權(quán)利。
61.船舶優(yōu)先權(quán)：是指海事請求人依照《海商法》的規(guī)定，向船舶所有人、光船承租人、船舶經(jīng)營人提出海事請求，對產(chǎn)生該海事請求的船舶享有優(yōu)先受償?shù)臋?quán)利。 海上貨物運(yùn)輸：是指承運(yùn)人收取運(yùn)費(fèi)，負(fù)責(zé)將托運(yùn)人的貨物經(jīng)海路由一港運(yùn)至另一港的合同，也是規(guī)定海上運(yùn)輸中承運(yùn)人與托運(yùn)人權(quán)利義務(wù)的合同。
62.提單：是用以證明海上貨物運(yùn)輸合同和貨物已由承運(yùn)人接管或裝船，以及承運(yùn)人保證據(jù)此交付貨物的單證。
63.海上拖航合同：是指承拖方用拖輪將被拖物經(jīng)海路從一地拖至另一地，而由被拖方支付拖航費(fèi)得合同。
64.船舶碰撞：是指船舶在海上或者與海相同的可航水域發(fā)生接觸造成損害的事故。
65.海難救助：是對在海上或者與海相通的可航水域遇險的船舶和其他財產(chǎn)進(jìn)行的救助。
66.海難救助款項：是指被救助方依法律規(guī)定或合同的約定，應(yīng)當(dāng)向救助方支付的任何救助
67.共同海損：是指在同一海上航程中，船舶、貨物和其他財產(chǎn)遭遇共同危險，為了共同安全，有意地、合理地采取措施所直接造成的特殊犧牲、支付的特殊費(fèi)用。
68.海上保險合同：是指保險人按照約定，對被保險人遭受保險事故造成保險標(biāo)的的損失和產(chǎn)生的責(zé)任負(fù)責(zé)賠償，而由保險人支付保險費(fèi)的合同。
69.委付：是指在保險標(biāo)的物發(fā)生推定全損時，被保險人如果要索賠損失必須將標(biāo)的物可能的余值轉(zhuǎn)移給保險人，即對該標(biāo)的物進(jìn)行委付。
70.法定資本人？是指在公司設(shè)立時，雖然要再公司章程中確定注冊資本總額，但發(fā)起人只需認(rèn)足或繳足部分股份，公司就可正式成立，其余的股份，授權(quán)董事會根據(jù)公司生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營情況和證券市場行情在隨時發(fā)行的公司資本制度
71.認(rèn)可資本制?是指在公司設(shè)立時，對公司章程中所確定的注冊資本，發(fā)起人只認(rèn)購一部分，未認(rèn)購的部分授權(quán)董事會根據(jù)需要隨時發(fā)行，但首次發(fā)行的股份不得少于法定比例，發(fā)行股份的授權(quán)也許在一定期限內(nèi)行使的公司資本制度
72.發(fā)起設(shè)立？又稱單純設(shè)立，是指由發(fā)起人認(rèn)足公司全部股本而設(shè)立的公司
73.商法？規(guī)范規(guī)范市場主體和商事交易的法律規(guī)范的總稱。
74.授權(quán)資本制是指公司設(shè)立時，雖然要在公司章程中確定注冊資本總額，但發(fā)起人只需認(rèn)足或繳足部分股份，公司就可正式成立，其余的股份，授權(quán)董事會根據(jù)公司生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營情況和證券市場行情再隨時發(fā)行的公司資本制度。
75.嚴(yán)格責(zé)任原則又稱無過錯責(zé)任原則，是指不論違約方主觀上是否有過錯，只要其有不履行或不完全履行合同義務(wù)的行為，就應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)違約責(zé)任。
76.票據(jù)的保證是指票據(jù)債務(wù)人以外的人，為擔(dān)保被保證的票據(jù)債務(wù)人履行其票據(jù)債務(wù)，承諾與被保證人對持票人承擔(dān)連帶責(zé)任而在票據(jù)上所為的票據(jù)行為。
77.法定資本制是指在設(shè)立公司時，注冊資本由全體股東足額認(rèn)繳后，股東可以在公司登記成立前后的一定期限內(nèi)一次或分次繳付出資的資本制度。
78.否認(rèn)權(quán)是指對于債務(wù)人極其負(fù)責(zé)人實施的危害債權(quán)人利益的行為，管理人享有的請求人民法院撤銷該行為或確認(rèn)該行為無效，從而追回所轉(zhuǎn)移財產(chǎn)的權(quán)利。
79.商主體？指具有商法上的資格或能力、能夠以自己的名義從事商行為，享有商法上的權(quán)利并承擔(dān)商法上的義務(wù)的組織和個人。
80.商行為？是指具有商行為能力的商主體從事以營利為目的的營業(yè)性法律行為。
81.商行為代理？是指商事代理人以營利為目的的接受被代理人委托，在委托的范圍內(nèi)以符合經(jīng)濟(jì)的原則同第三人建立商事法律關(guān)系，其法律后果由被代理人承擔(dān)的商行為
82.商號？是指商主體在營業(yè)活動中所使用的與其他商主體相互區(qū)別的稱號。
83.商業(yè)登記？是指商業(yè)發(fā)起人或籌辦人為設(shè)立、變更或終止商主體資格，依照法律法規(guī)所規(guī)定的內(nèi)容和程序，向營業(yè)所在地主管機(jī)關(guān)申請登記并被主管機(jī)關(guān)核準(zhǔn)注冊登記的法律行為。
84.個人獨(dú)資企業(yè)？是指依法在中國境內(nèi)設(shè)立的，由一個自然人投資，財產(chǎn)為投資人個人所有，投資人以其個人財產(chǎn)對企業(yè)債務(wù)承擔(dān)無限責(zé)任的經(jīng)營實體。
85.合伙企業(yè)？是指兩人或兩人以上的合伙人訂立合伙協(xié)議，共同投資，合伙經(jīng)營，共享收益，至少有一個以上的合伙人對企業(yè)債務(wù)承擔(dān)無限責(zé)任的營利性組織。
86.入伙？是指兩人或兩人以上的合伙人訂立合伙協(xié)議，共同投資，合伙經(jīng)營，共享收益，至少有一個以上的合伙人對企業(yè)債務(wù)承擔(dān)無限責(zé)任的營利性組織。
87.退伙？是指合伙企業(yè)存續(xù)期間，合伙人依法退出在合伙企業(yè)的財產(chǎn)份額，消除合伙人資格的行為，退伙的情形包括聲明退伙、法定退伙和除名退伙。
名詞解釋：
1、實驗針灸學(xué)：是在中醫(yī)理論指導(dǎo)下，運(yùn)用現(xiàn)代科學(xué)技術(shù)和方法，主要開展針灸理論、針灸作用規(guī)律、針灸作用機(jī)制和針灸應(yīng)用技術(shù)等相關(guān)研究的一門新興學(xué)科；是針灸學(xué)科一個新的分支；也是研究針灸神經(jīng)生物學(xué)機(jī)制的重要基礎(chǔ)。
2、得氣：是指針刺穴位后產(chǎn)生的經(jīng)氣感應(yīng)。
3、循經(jīng)感傳現(xiàn)象：是指以針刺、低頻脈沖電等方法刺激穴位時，人體出現(xiàn)酸、麻、重、脹等特殊感覺，從被刺激的穴位開始，沿著經(jīng)脈循行路線傳導(dǎo)。
4、經(jīng)穴-臟腑相關(guān)：反映了經(jīng)脈穴位與臟腑之間的一種雙向關(guān)系，即臟腑生理或病理改變可通過多種形式反映到體表的相應(yīng)穴位上；刺激體表穴位又可對相應(yīng)臟腑的生理功能和病理改變起到一定的調(diào)節(jié)作用。
5、牽涉痛：是指當(dāng)某一內(nèi)臟器官有病變時，患者除感覺患病器官的局部不適或疼痛外，尚可在遠(yuǎn)離該器官的體表某部皮膚或深部組織發(fā)生痛覺過敏。
海氏帶:當(dāng)一些內(nèi)臟器官患病時，往往在相關(guān)部位的皮膚出現(xiàn)痛覺過敏，這種痛覺過敏的皮膚部位即稱為海氏帶或痛覺過敏帶。
6、穴位功能特異性:是指穴位與非穴位、不同穴位之間在主治和功能作用上所存在的差異。
7、針灸作用的時間效應(yīng)：對穴位進(jìn)行針灸刺激時，針灸效應(yīng)的發(fā)生、發(fā)展呈現(xiàn)一個漸進(jìn)的時間過程，分為潛伏期、上升期、高峰期和下降期。
時效曲線：用直角坐標(biāo)圖表示針效與時間的關(guān)系。
8、針麻誘導(dǎo)期：在實施針麻手術(shù)之前，對選定的穴位預(yù)先進(jìn)行一段時間針刺刺激，至鎮(zhèn)痛效果達(dá)到可以手術(shù)這段時間。（一般在25~40min左右）
9、針刺耐受：是指由于長時間針刺或反復(fù)多次針刺后，針刺鎮(zhèn)痛效應(yīng)降低的一種現(xiàn)象。
10、針刺后效應(yīng)：停止針刺后繼續(xù)存在的針刺效應(yīng)
11、疼痛：是一種與組織損傷或潛在損傷相關(guān)的不愉快的主觀感覺和情感體驗，它包含痛感覺和痛反應(yīng)兩個成分。
痛閾（或痛反應(yīng)閾）：是指從刺激開始到引起疼痛感覺或運(yùn)動反應(yīng)的最小刺激量。
耐痛閾：是指能耐受疼痛的最大刺激量
12、針刺麻醉：是指用針刺止痛方法來預(yù)防手術(shù)中的疼痛及減輕生理功能紊亂，在患者清醒狀態(tài)下施行手術(shù)的一種麻醉方法。
13、吞噬能力：指100個白細(xì)胞中吞噬細(xì)菌的白細(xì)胞所占的比例。
吞噬指數(shù)：指100個白細(xì)胞中，能夠吞噬細(xì)菌的白細(xì)胞所吞噬細(xì)菌的平均個數(shù)。
針灸作用：針灸的鎮(zhèn)痛作用、神經(jīng)-內(nèi)分泌-免疫網(wǎng)絡(luò)的調(diào)控作用和對失調(diào)的臟腑器官功能的調(diào)整作用。
第一章針灸作用的基礎(chǔ)研究
第一節(jié)：
1、穴位功能主要表現(xiàn)在兩個方面：感受刺激、反應(yīng)病癥
2、穴位感受器的特點(diǎn)：(后面要加具體的內(nèi)容)
1穴位可以感受多種形式的刺激，2穴位對不同形式的刺激有不同的適應(yīng)性，3穴位對不同形式刺激的感覺閾不同
3、穴位病理反應(yīng)的表現(xiàn)形式：感覺異常、組織形態(tài)改變、生物物理特性改變
5、得氣機(jī)制：針感的形成包括感受器、傳入神經(jīng)、脊髓通路、腦內(nèi)通路幾個環(huán)節(jié)。
手下感的實質(zhì)：穴區(qū)肌肉輕微的緊張性收縮。
手下感機(jī)制：針刺信息由外周傳入神經(jīng)通路進(jìn)入中樞，經(jīng)中樞整合調(diào)制后，一方面形成針感，另一方面通過脊髓?-傳出系統(tǒng)隨軀體神經(jīng)到達(dá)相應(yīng)支配區(qū)穴位下的肌梭，引起梭內(nèi)肌收縮和肌電發(fā)放，以及局部肌纖維收縮，后者經(jīng)針柄傳于施針者指下，從而形成沉緊的手下感
第二節(jié)：
1、循經(jīng)感傳的基本特征：1循經(jīng)擴(kuò)布，2趨向病所，3寬度和深度不均，4感覺性質(zhì)多樣，5慢速傳導(dǎo)，6雙向循行和回流現(xiàn)象，7可以阻滯，8影響臟腑功能活動
2、常見的經(jīng)絡(luò)現(xiàn)象及其特點(diǎn)：
常見的經(jīng)絡(luò)現(xiàn)象
（1）生理現(xiàn)象——循經(jīng)感傳現(xiàn)象
（2）病理現(xiàn)象——循經(jīng)性感覺障礙和可見的經(jīng)絡(luò)現(xiàn)象:①循經(jīng)性感覺障礙；②可見的經(jīng)絡(luò)現(xiàn)象:循經(jīng)性皮膚病、循經(jīng)性皮膚血管神經(jīng)性反應(yīng)
特點(diǎn)：（1）循經(jīng)感傳現(xiàn)象基本特征：1）循經(jīng)擴(kuò)布;2)趨向病所；3）寬度和深度不均；4）感覺性質(zhì)多樣；5）慢速傳導(dǎo);6）雙向循行和回流現(xiàn)象；7）可以阻滯：①機(jī)械壓迫②局部降溫③局部注射普魯卡因和生理鹽水，亦稱張力阻滯④皮膚觸覺刺激⑤外加磁場刺激
第三節(jié)：
3、牽涉痛特征：
①牽涉痛出現(xiàn)的部位，多發(fā)生在與病變器官同一神經(jīng)節(jié)段的皮節(jié)區(qū)或肌節(jié)區(qū)。
②牽涉痛一般均為可逆，當(dāng)去除內(nèi)臟病變后，其牽涉痛也隨之消失。
③皮膚過敏帶不僅對接觸、壓迫、牽引等出現(xiàn)感覺過敏，而且皮下組織硬度也發(fā)生變化，有時用手可以觸到有結(jié)節(jié)和條索狀物等，有的還可見皮膚變厚的現(xiàn)象。
④皮膚過敏帶的毛細(xì)血管出現(xiàn)循環(huán)障礙，如發(fā)生痙攣等，從而引起局部缺血。
5、神經(jīng)節(jié)段性分布與穴位主治功能的關(guān)系
1）軀干部經(jīng)穴主治功能與神經(jīng)節(jié)段的關(guān)系
分析任脈、督脈、胃經(jīng)、膀胱經(jīng)、腎經(jīng)和脾經(jīng)位于頸部、上胸部、下胸部和腰骶部經(jīng)穴的主治病癥，可發(fā)現(xiàn)其有明顯的神經(jīng)節(jié)段性。從神經(jīng)解剖學(xué)分析，人體軀干部穴區(qū)所屬神經(jīng)節(jié)段與其主治內(nèi)臟所屬神經(jīng)節(jié)段具有相當(dāng)?shù)囊恢滦?/p>
7、遠(yuǎn)距離取穴可以用“中樞匯聚理論”解釋。
8、胃耳反射：傳入神經(jīng)—迷走神經(jīng)；傳出神經(jīng)—交感神經(jīng)節(jié)后纖維；中樞神經(jīng)—下丘腦后外側(cè)區(qū)
第二章針灸作用的基本特點(diǎn)與影響因素
1、針灸作用的基本特點(diǎn)：1整體性，2良性、雙向性，3功能性、早期性
2、針灸作用的影響因素：1個體差異，2穴位功能特異性，3得氣，4針法灸法的刺激參數(shù)，5時間因素
3、穴位功能特異性的表現(xiàn)（舉例）：P76
5、艾灸的刺激參數(shù)及臨床意義：P86①灸溫：溫度幅值、溫度升降速度、溫度作用面積②艾灸壯數(shù)、③每壯的持續(xù)時間和間隔時間、④灸量、⑤灸時、⑥灸質(zhì)
第三章
1、疼痛特點(diǎn)：①痛覺不是一個獨(dú)立的單一感覺。（而是和其他感覺糅合在一起組成一種復(fù)合感覺。）②痛覺伴有強(qiáng)烈的情緒色彩，構(gòu)成相當(dāng)復(fù)雜的心理活動。③疼痛還具有“經(jīng)驗”的屬性。④能引起痛覺的刺激多為傷害性刺激。
疼痛分類：（根據(jù)疼痛的性質(zhì)）：
①刺痛：又稱快痛、第一痛。其特點(diǎn)是痛覺清晰、尖銳，定位明確，迅速發(fā)生又迅速消失，引起較弱的情緒變化，常伴有受刺激的肢體出現(xiàn)保護(hù)性反射。
②灼痛：又稱慢痛、延緩?fù)础⒌诙础Ｆ涮攸c(diǎn)是痛覺緩慢形成，持續(xù)時間較長，定位較差，呈燒灼感，使人不易忍受，常伴有情緒反應(yīng)、心血管和呼吸系統(tǒng)的變化。
③酸痛、脹痛、絞痛：其特點(diǎn)是痛覺難以描述，定位差，難以確定痛源部位。伴有內(nèi)臟反應(yīng)和軀體反應(yīng)，以及較強(qiáng)的情緒反應(yīng)。
2、常用體外致痛物質(zhì)（七種）：K+、H+、組織胺、乙酰膽堿、5—HT、緩激肽、SP
3、閘門控制學(xué)說的中心思想（P111）：刺激皮膚發(fā)生的傳入神經(jīng)沖動進(jìn)入脊髓后，被引進(jìn)三個系統(tǒng)：閘門控制系統(tǒng)，中樞控制系統(tǒng)，作用系統(tǒng)。這三個系統(tǒng)協(xié)同作用才能產(chǎn)生痛感覺和痛反應(yīng)。
4、針刺鎮(zhèn)痛的一般規(guī)律:
⑴針刺鎮(zhèn)痛作用的性質(zhì)：具有以下特點(diǎn):①針刺既能鎮(zhèn)急性痛，又能鎮(zhèn)慢性痛；②針刺既能抑制體表痛，又能減輕乃至消除深部痛和牽涉痛；③針刺既能抑制痛感覺，又能減低疼痛的情緒反應(yīng)；④針刺既能減低痛覺分辨率，又能提高報痛標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。
⑵針刺鎮(zhèn)痛作用的強(qiáng)度：在適宜的針刺刺激條件下，針刺可使正常人痛閾和耐痛閾提高，達(dá)到65%~180%。
⑶針刺鎮(zhèn)痛的空間作用范圍：針刺具有全身性的鎮(zhèn)痛作用，但穴位與針刺鎮(zhèn)痛部位之間有相對的特異性。
⑷針刺鎮(zhèn)痛作用的時程:在人體從針刺開始至痛閾或耐痛閾升高至最大值一般需20~40min，繼續(xù)運(yùn)針或通電刺激可使鎮(zhèn)痛作用持續(xù)保持在較高水平上，停針后其痛閾呈指數(shù)曲線形式回復(fù)，半衰期為16min左右。
⑸針刺鎮(zhèn)痛作用的影響因素：針刺鎮(zhèn)痛作用主要受到個體差異、時間因素、刺激參數(shù)等的影響。
5、針麻特點(diǎn)：①使用安全，適用范圍廣。②患者處于清醒狀態(tài)，便于與醫(yī)生配合。③生理干擾少，利于術(shù)后恢復(fù)。④簡便、經(jīng)濟(jì)、便于推廣。
作用：①輔助鎮(zhèn)痛作用，②鎮(zhèn)靜作用，③抗內(nèi)臟牽拉反應(yīng)作用，④抗創(chuàng)傷性休克作用，⑤抗手術(shù)感染作用，⑥保護(hù)重要臟器功能的作用，⑦促進(jìn)創(chuàng)傷修復(fù)的作用。
★缺陷/局限性（針麻“三關(guān)”）：鎮(zhèn)痛不全、不能完全抑制內(nèi)臟反應(yīng)、肌肉松弛不夠。
6、針刺鎮(zhèn)痛的作用原理：一、針刺鎮(zhèn)痛的外周機(jī)制：1、針感感受器的興奮，2、針刺信號的外周傳入纖維（針刺傳入主要由軀體感覺神經(jīng)中的Ⅱ類、Ⅲ類纖維傳導(dǎo)。）3、同神經(jīng)電針鎮(zhèn)痛的外周機(jī)制。二、針刺鎮(zhèn)痛的中樞機(jī)制：（論述題）
第四章針灸的免疫調(diào)節(jié)作用
1、舉例針灸對免疫功能的調(diào)節(jié)作用（腫瘤免疫、白細(xì)胞、巨噬細(xì)胞免疫等）：
⑴針灸對白細(xì)胞的調(diào)節(jié)作用：針灸可以調(diào)節(jié)外周血白細(xì)胞的數(shù)量和吞噬功能。
①針灸對白細(xì)胞數(shù)量的調(diào)節(jié)：例如針灸正常人的足三里、合谷、內(nèi)關(guān)，可使血中白細(xì)胞總數(shù)上升，并以中性粒細(xì)胞比例增加為主，而淋巴細(xì)胞比例下降。
②對白細(xì)胞吞噬功能的影響：針刺足三里或合谷穴，均能提高白細(xì)胞對金黃色葡萄球菌的吞噬能力。
⑵針灸可以增加巨噬細(xì)胞的吞噬功能：例如針刺老年大鼠雙側(cè)足三里和關(guān)元穴，能使老年大鼠肝內(nèi)巨噬細(xì)胞在數(shù)量上增多，體積上增大，吞噬功能增強(qiáng)。
⑶針灸對腫瘤細(xì)胞免疫的調(diào)節(jié)作用：例如電針荷瘤大鼠足三里、合谷和三陰交，可以提高CD4+細(xì)胞數(shù)量和CD4+/CD8+比值下降
3、針灸的抗炎作用（三個方面）（論述題）：（1）對滲出的影響：針灸可抑制炎癥過程中血管通透性的增高，減少炎癥滲出物；減輕炎癥灶白細(xì)胞浸潤；改善炎癥局部微循環(huán)和淋巴循環(huán)，促進(jìn)炎性滲出物的吸收，減輕炎性水腫。（2）對變性的影響：針灸可控制和縮水炎癥灶壞死面積，延緩和防止壞死的發(fā)生，從而減輕炎癥的變性病變。（3）對增生的影響：針灸可促進(jìn)細(xì)胞的修復(fù)再生和瘢痕化進(jìn)程；在促進(jìn)肉芽組織形成的同時抑制其過度增生。
第五章針灸對各器官系統(tǒng)功能的調(diào)節(jié)（論述題）
1、針灸治療腦血管病的作用機(jī)制：①改善腦微循環(huán)，增加腦血流量，②改善血液流變學(xué)異常，③改善腦電活動，④抑制免疫炎性反應(yīng)，促進(jìn)內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞的修復(fù)，⑤保護(hù)受損神經(jīng)元（a、降低自由基水平，b、拮抗興奮性氨基酸神經(jīng)毒作用，c、抑制神經(jīng)細(xì)胞的凋亡，d、抑制鈣超載）
2、針灸治療糖尿病的作用機(jī)制：①影響血糖水平（雙向調(diào)節(jié)）、②影響血脂水平（降低）、③改善胰島素抵抗、④調(diào)節(jié)神經(jīng)-內(nèi)分泌-免疫系統(tǒng)功能、⑤對糖尿病周圍神經(jīng)病變的影響：（a、改善微循環(huán)及血液流變學(xué)異常，b、改善神經(jīng)病變）
3、針灸治療冠心病的作用機(jī)制：針刺內(nèi)關(guān)穴可以改善急性心肌缺血①增加冠狀動脈血流量，改善心臟泵血功能，②改善血液流變學(xué)及微循環(huán)狀態(tài)，③調(diào)節(jié)心電活動，改善心電圖指標(biāo)，④對單胺類神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)的影響，⑤調(diào)節(jié)血管活性物質(zhì)。
4、針灸治療支氣管哮喘的作用機(jī)制：①改善肺功能，②對多種炎癥免疫細(xì)胞及細(xì)胞因子的影響，③調(diào)節(jié)下丘腦-垂體-腎上腺皮質(zhì)軸，④調(diào)整免疫功能
第六章科研方法
1、醫(yī)學(xué)研究的分類：基礎(chǔ)研究、應(yīng)用研究、開發(fā)研究
2、醫(yī)學(xué)研究的基本程序：①提出問題，確定選題，建立假說；②查閱文獻(xiàn)資料，撰寫文獻(xiàn)綜述；③科研設(shè)計；④觀察實驗與驗證；⑤整理資料，實驗結(jié)果的分析；⑥撰寫論文與發(fā)表。
3、選題的原則：科學(xué)性、先進(jìn)性、創(chuàng)新性、適用性、可行性、效能性。
基本程序（了解）：1提出問題、2查閱文獻(xiàn)、3建立假說、4確立選題、5選題的說明
5、實驗設(shè)計的三要素：研究對象、處理因素、實驗效應(yīng)
四原則：對照原則、隨機(jī)原則、重復(fù)原則、盲法原則
名詞解釋
1、腎門：腎臟內(nèi)側(cè)緣中部呈四邊形的凹陷。
2、腎蒂：出入腎門的血管、神經(jīng)、淋巴管及腎盂被結(jié)締組織所包裹，稱為~。
3、腎竇：由腎門伸入腎實質(zhì)的凹陷稱為~，為腎血管、腎小盞、腎大盞、腎盂和脂肪所占據(jù)。
腎盂：由2-3個腎大盞集合而成，呈前后略扁的漏斗形，腎盂出腎門后逐漸變細(xì)，移行為輸尿管。
4、腎區(qū)：腰背部豎脊肌外側(cè)緣與第12肋的夾角處為腎門的體表投影點(diǎn)，稱為~。
腎柱：伸入腎錐體之間的腎皮質(zhì)。
腎乳頭：腎錐體的尖端鈍圓、伸向腎竇稱為~。
5、膀胱三角：在膀胱底內(nèi)面，兩側(cè)輸尿管口和尿道內(nèi)口之間的三角形區(qū)域稱為~。此處缺少粘膜下組織，粘膜緊貼肌層，故膀胱膨脹或空虛時均保持平滑狀態(tài)。是腫瘤、結(jié)核和炎癥的好發(fā)區(qū)。
6、輸尿管間襞：兩個輸尿管口之間的皺襞稱為~，膀胱鏡下所見是一蒼白帶，是臨床上尋找輸尿管輸尿管口的標(biāo)志。
7、精索：位于睪丸上端和腹股溝管腹環(huán)間的一對柔軟的圓索狀結(jié)構(gòu)。
8、包皮系帶：包皮與陰莖頭腹側(cè)中線處連有一皮膚皺襞，稱為~。
9、鞘膜腔：睪丸鞘膜臟壁兩層在睪丸后緣處返折移行，兩者之間的腔隙稱為~，內(nèi)有少量漿液。
10、子宮峽：子宮頸陰道上部的上端子宮體相接較狹細(xì)的部分稱為~。未孕時1cm，妊娠末期可達(dá)7-11cm。產(chǎn)科常在此處行剖宮產(chǎn)術(shù)。
11、子宮闊韌帶：子宮前后面的腹膜自子宮側(cè)緣向兩側(cè)延伸至盆側(cè)壁和盆底形成的雙側(cè)腹膜皺襞稱為~。
12、陰道穹：陰道的上端寬闊，包繞子宮頸陰道部，二者之間形成的一個環(huán)形凹陷稱為~。
13、乳房懸韌帶（Cooper韌帶）：胸壁淺筋膜發(fā)出許多小的纖維束，連于胸筋膜和皮膚，稱為~，對乳房起支持和固定作用。
14、會陰（狹義）：肛門和外生殖器之間的軟組織。
會陰（廣義）：封閉小骨盆下口的所有軟組織。
15、盆膈：盆膈上筋膜、盆膈下筋膜及其之間的肛提肌、尾骨肌共同組成的結(jié)構(gòu)稱為~。作為盆腔底封閉骨盆出口，在中線上有直腸、尿道、陰道等通過。
尿生殖膈：在尿生殖區(qū)，由盆膈上筋膜、尿生殖膈下筋膜及其間的會陰深橫肌、尿道括約肌等組成的結(jié)構(gòu)稱為~。
16、膀胱括約肌：在尿道內(nèi)口的周圍環(huán)形平滑肌增厚，形成膀胱括約肌。
17、射精管：由輸精管末端與精囊腺排泄管匯合而成的管道稱為~。其從前列腺底部穿前列腺實質(zhì)，開口于尿道的前列腺部。
18、尿道球：尿道海綿體的后端膨大稱為~。
輸卵管傘：在輸卵管漏斗的周緣，由粘膜形成的許多指狀突起。
陰道前庭：兩側(cè)小陰唇之間的裂隙。前部有尿道外口，后部有陰道口。
1.Amerigo Vespucci---Amerigo Vespucci, a navigator, proved that the land was not India,but a new continent. Therefore, the land was named America after.
2.the Mississippi River--the mississippi River has been called "father of waters" or "old man river",the mississippi and its tributaries drain one of the richest farm areas in the world.it is the most important river in the world.
3.WASPS---WASPS are the mainstream Americans, refering to the white Anglo-saxon protestants. 新教徒的盎格魯撒克遜裔美國人
4.the Great Lakes---the great lakes are the most important lakes in the united states.they are Lake Superior,lake Michigan,Lake Huron,Lake Eire and Lake Ontario.
5. New England---New England refers to the northeastern six states of the US. They are Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. New England is sometimes called the birthplace of America.
6.The Puritans----The Puritans were wealthy, well-educated gentlemen. They wanted to purify the Church of England and threatened with religious persecution, the Puritans leaders saw the New world as the a refuge provided by God for those He meant to save.清教徒
7.Indentured servants---indenture servants refer to some immigrants who has to work for a fixed term for their masters to repay the cross-atlantic fare and debts.契約傭工
8.Crown colonies---Crown colonies were under the control of the English Monarch who appointed governors to rule them.英直轄殖民地
9.Proprietary colonies--- Proprietary colonies were founded on lands granted by the king to individuals who were the real owners of these colonies.獨(dú)立前英王特許領(lǐng)主獨(dú)占的殖民地
10.Charter colonies--- Charter colonies were established on the charter, or permit, given by the monarch to a group of merchants. The charter stipulated the rights and obligations of the colonies as well as the principles they had to obey.特許殖民地
11.The First Continental Congress---In 1774, the First Continental Congress was held in Philadelphia, which encouraged Americans to refuse to buy British goods, and organized colonial militia units.第一屆大陸會議
12.no taxtation without representation---that is ,without their representatives taking part in decision-making,they had no obligation to pay taxes.
13.Boston Tea Party---in 1773,when ships of tea reached boston and the governor was determind to see that tea was legally protected in its distribution,several dozen boston residents dressed as Indians boarded the ships at night and threw $75,000 worth of tea into the harbor.this came to be known as the "Boston Tea Party".波士頓傾茶事件
14.federalists---they were those who demanded a strong national system and who later struggle hard for the ratification of the Constitution.聯(lián)邦制擁護(hù)者
15."the Great Compromise"---"the Great Compromise" of july 16,giving each state an equal vote in the Senate but making representation in the House reflect the size of each state"s population."大妥協(xié)"
16. The Bill of Rights----In 1789, James Madison introduced in the House of Representatives a series of amendments which later were drafted into twelve proposed amendments and sent to the states for ratification. Ten of them were ratified in 1791 and the first ten amendments to the constitution were called the Bills of Rights because they were to insure individual liberties.
17.the Emancipation Proclamation---during the civil war, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation to get more support for the union at home and abroad.It granted freedom to all slaves.解放宣言
18.the Gettysburg Address---it refers to the short speech president Lincoln made when he dedicated the national cemetery at Gettysburg. He ended the speech with “the government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish死亡 from the earth”.葛底斯堡演說
19.the ku klux klan---the kkk was the first organized in 1866 and then reformed in 1867.the kkk terrorized and attacked not only blacks,but also progressives,labor union organizers communist or socialist party members.三K黨，最早成立在1866年，后在1867年重組，他們進(jìn)行恐怖活動，不僅攻擊黑人、而且還迫害進(jìn)步人士、工會組織者、社會主義和共產(chǎn)主義黨派成員。
20. Fourteen Points---it was proposed by President Wilson in January, 1918. In his Fourteen Points, he defined a new world order of justice, peace and property, promoting freedom of seas, removal of trade barriers, among others. However, almost all the points Wilson had proposed were rejected in the Versailles Treaty.十四點(diǎn)原則
21.the Red Scare--the Red Scare, on November 7, 1919 and January 2, 1920,the justice department launched two waves of arrests, over 4,000 suspected radicals and communists were arrested. 紅色恐懼（恐慌）,在1919年12月7日和1920年1月2日，司法部發(fā)動了兩次抓捕活動，大約4000名被懷疑是激進(jìn)分子和共產(chǎn)黨的人被逮捕。
22.The Black Thursday---The Black Thursday refers to Oct 24 1929 when the stock market crash happened. Ten of millions of shares were dumped and billions of dollars of paper profits were wiped out within a few hours. It signaled the beginning of the Great Depression.
23.The New Deal----In order to deal with the Depression, President Franklin Roosevelt put forward the New Deal program. It passed a lot of New Deal laws and set up many efficient social security systems. The New Deal helped to save American democracy and the development of American economy.新政
24.the Truman doctrine---that is,the united states would support any country which said it was fighting with communism.杜魯門主義，是說美國將支持任何與共產(chǎn)主義做斗爭的國家。
25. checks and balances---this is a major principle of the American governmental system by which each branch of the government exercises a check on the actions of the others.制衡制度,是美國政府的一個主要措施,政府的各部門都可以制止和檢查其他各部門的行為.
26.winner-takes-all---this is to say,the candidate who receives the most votes wins everything.勝者得全票選舉人制度,是說獲得最多選票的候選人贏得全部.
27. the federal system---it is a system of government in which power is divided by a written constitution between a central government and regional, or sub-divisional governments.聯(lián)邦制
28.separation of powers---it refers to the principle that the national goverment is split into three branches:legislative,executive and judicial.分權(quán)制
29.transcendentalism---it was a movement that emerged in the 1830s and 1840s among american yough intellectuals which emphasized man"s potentiality for goodness creativity,and self-development.超驗主義
30. Jazz---jazz is a blend of African musical tradition carried over by black slaves and European classics.爵士音樂
31.Halloween---In the US, Halloween falls on Oct 31. It’s a nighttime children’s day and a time for frightening costumes, masks, parties, games and tricks--- all for fun.萬圣節(jié)
32. independence Day---Independence Day (July 4) is American’s most important patriotic holiday and the birthday of the nation.美國獨(dú)立日
33.Thanksgiving---Thanksgiving is celebrated in the US on the fourth Thursday in November. For many Americans it is the most important holiday apart from Christmas.感恩節(jié)
Unrepresentative samples
When an argument"s assumption is unwarranted or unlikely, the argument suffers from a logical flaw. One such flaw occurs when an argument draws a conclusion about a group from evidence that deals with a subgroup that is not representative of the entire group.
Unrepresentative evidence is either too limited to represent the group in the conclusion adequately, or it addresses a sample group whose makeup differs in some significant way from the makeup of the group in the conclusion.
It has long been asserted that snowboarding is a significantly more dangerous activity than skiing, but a study of Olympic skiiers and snowboarders suggests that there is no such disparity in risk. Over the last two decades, Olympic snowboarders and Olympic skiers have experienced equal injury rates.
This argument cites an?unrepresentative sample?as evidence. Olympic skiers and snowboarders?differ significantly?from skiers and snowboarders in general. Since the argument draws a conclusion about skiers and snowboarders in general from the evidence of Olympic athletes, it suffers from a?logical flaw.
?
It has long been asserted that snowboarding is a significantly more dangerous Olympic sport than skiing, but a 2006 study performed at the Winter Olympics in Torino demonstrates that there is no such disparity in risk. Of the very few injuries recorded at these Olympics, there were an equal number to snowboarders and skiers.
This argument also cites an?unrepresentative sample?as evidence. The very few injuries experienced by Olympic skiers and snowboarders at Torino in 2006 are?too limited?to represent the injuries experienced by Olympic skiers and snowboarders in general. Since the argument draws a conclusion about Olympic skiiers and snowboarders in general from the evidence of such a small group, it suffers from a?logical flaw.
A formal logical statement is one that establishes a necessary connection between facts. A standard way to express such a statement is? “if P then Q.” In this statement, P represents a fact that is sufficient to establish that Q must be true, and Q represents a fact that must necessarily be true if P is true.
Certain other relationships between P and Q may be validly inferred from this statement, while other potential relationships are invalid inferences.
?
Formal logical statement:
If P, then Q.
If I am a novelist, then I am a writer.
The fact that I am a novelist is sufficient to establish that I must be a writer. Furthermore, it"s necessarily true that I"m a writer given that I am a novelist.
?Possible formal logical inferences:
If not Q, then not P.
If I am not a writer, then I am not a novelist.
This inference, called the?contrapositive, reverses the order P and Q and negates both. It is?valid. It"s necessarily true that I"m a writer given that I am a novelist. Therefore, the fact that I am not a writer is sufficient to establish that I"m not a novelist.
?
If not P, then not Q.
If I am not a novelist, then I am not a writer.
This inference negates both P and Q without reversing their order. It is?invalid. I can be a non-novelist but still a writer. For example, I could be a journalist or playwright who does not write novels.
?
If Q, then P.
If I am a writer, then I am a novelist.
This inference reverses the order of P and Q without negating them. It is?invalid. The fact that I am a writer is not sufficient to establish that I am a novelist. I could be a journalist or a playwright who does not write novels.
When an argument"s assumption is unwarranted or unlikely, the argument suffers from a logical flaw. One such flaw occurs when an argument concludes that one event caused another based only on the evidence that the two events occurred at the same time or one after the other.
Such arguments rely on an unwarranted assumption that two events that occur together must have a certain cause-and-effect relationship.
It is common for recent airplane passengers to report feeling jet lagged up to several days after a transatlantic flight. These jet lag sufferers are also likelier than average to be diagnosed with influenza. Therefore, jet lag causes an increased susceptibility to influenza.
This argument assumes a?cause-and-effect relationship?based on a?correlation. The conclusion that jet lag causes the flu suffers from a?logical flaw; the evidence only establishes that jet lag and the flu occur together. In fact, these two conditions have separate causes: traveling across time zones causes jet lag, and sitting very close to many people causes the flu.
?Sometimes an argument concludes that one event causes another when both events are caused by a third unnamed factor.
Advertisement for Hatton Frozen Novelty, Co.:?Not only is ice cream delicious, but it’s also good for your mental health. Studies show that the more money people spend on ice cream, the?happier?people tend to feel. So, if you want to be considerate to both your taste buds and your mind, buy Hatton ice cream.
This argument assumes a cause-and-effect relationship between?two events with a?third cause. The conclusion that buying Hatton ice cream will make people happier suffers from a?logical flaw; the evidence only establishes that increased happiness and increased ice cream spending occur together. It is more likely that a third factor, such as summer weather, is responsible for both the increase in ice cream sales and the increase in reported happiness.
Inferring the reasoning behind statements
Readers are often expected to make?inferences, conclusions not explicitly stated in a passage but strongly supported by the text.?Detail-based inferences?are conclusions drawn from an single detail in context.
Often, readers are asked to infer the reasoning behind statements; in other words, readers must articulate?why?an author chose to include a specific detail. Such inferences require an understanding of the author"s purpose and the structure of the author"s argument.
Consider this passage by Paul Lacroix:
The falcon was held in the highest esteem, a distinctive mark which was inseparable from the person of gentle birth, who frequently even went to war with the falcon on his wrist. The falcon to a certain degree even partook of his owner"s nobility; he was, moreover, considered a noble bird by the laws of falconry, as were all birds of prey which could be trained for purposes of sport. All other birds, without distinction, were declared ignoble, and no exception was made to this rule by the naturalists of the Middle Ages, not even in favour of the magnificent eagle or the fearsome vulture.
The reader might be asked to determine the primary reason why the author mentions the?magnificent eagle or the fearsome vulture.
Possible inferences:
?
Valid
They are mentioned in order to emphasize the high esteem in which falcons were held.
Since the main idea of the passage is the status of the falcon, it seems likely that other birds are discussed in order to make a point about falcons. The eagle and vulture are described in impressive terms (magnificent?and?fearsome). They are nevertheless?declared ignoble?because they are not falcons. The author thus reinforces the main idea that the falcon was held in special esteem.
Invalid
They are mentioned in order to undermine the idea that falcons partook of their owners" nobility
The discussion of the eagle and the vulture comes within the context of the nobility of other birds, not within the part of the passage discussing falcons" share in their owners" nobility. Furthermore, this inference both does not fit the main idea of the passage–the noble status of falcons.
?
An inference?is a statement that is not explicitly stated, but can be logically Identifying conclusion:concluded from what is stated. It is important to distinguish between an inference?and an Assumption questions:assumption. An assumption is an unstated premise that must be true?in order for?the argument to be valid, while an inference is an unstated fact that must be true?if?the argument is valid.??
While in common speech we often use the word inference to refer to something that is only?probably true, for our purposes an inference refers to something that?must be true?based on the evidence provided.
On the GMAT:
Test-takers are often asked to infer?new details?consistent with principles outlined in a passage. This may refer to an idea with which the author of the passage would agree, or a new situation or strategy that illustrates certain general principles in the passage.
To answer these questions correctly, test-takers must identify the general principle outlined in the passage as clearly and specifically as possible. Only then, with this principle in hand, should he or she examine the answer choices, eliminating those that do not correspond to the principle in order to isolate the one that does.
Example:
Homeless shelters that provide only a place to sleep and a warm meal are useful in the short term, but ultimately ineffective in reducing homelessness. Only programs that directly addresses the root cause of homelessness, unemployment, by providing the homeless with the skills and support they need to find gainful employment, will result in any longstanding reduction of the homeless population.?
Which of the following programs to reduce homelessness would the author be most likely to support?
In the above example, the general principle is relatively straightforward: The correct answer will be the only one that?provides the homeless with the skills and support... to find employment. No other choice, no matter how logical, rational, or intuitive, will be considered correct.?
Some more abstract principles are more difficult to locate in a passage:
Companies that invest heavily in expanding their infrastructure within a limited geographical area sometimes face an unexpected dilemma; multiple arms of the same business reach into the same customer base, saturating a market. The company"s new divisions both cost more and compete with one another, which raises overhead without increasing revenues.
Which of the following situations best exemplifies the "dilemma" discussed in the passage?
In this example, the principle is far more specific; the right answer will reflect a company which has expanded and which has divisions that compete with each other, costing more and not making more. Not?all?of these features need be addressed in the answer choice, but?several?must be, and any answer choices with features that specifically?contradict?these, such as one involving a company that expands, competes with itself, but?does?increase revenues, can be eliminated.
Analogous situations
Some Reading Comprehension questions ask test-takers to identify a situation which closely mirrors a situation described in a passage—sometimes referred to by the test as an?analogous situation. Note that "analogous" does not mean "identical"; in fact, the new situation will often be similar to the passage in only one or two aspects.
Correctly identifying which answer choice presents the analogous situation requires paying very close attention to the?structure?of the argument the author presents.
In particular, general features of the argument like changes, conflicts, and causes will be mirrored in the new analogous situation. More specifically, there is often one key element of an author"s argument thatmust?be represented in the correct answer choice.
Examples:
Passage Situation: Although Brinkers Corporation would have been expected to dominate its competitors in the commercial real-estate market due to its larger market share and higher level of name recognition, these features in fact had the opposite effect. In accordance with Keane"s theory of rotating markets, clients assumed that they already understood how Brinkers operated, but were open to the claims made by competitors who had not yet been so defined.
Structural Elements: A large, successful entity is too well "understood," so smaller competitors can make their own reputations and surpass it.
Key Aspect: One"s reputation, even if positive, can work against one.
Analogous Situation: A job candidate with strong recommendations and many years of experience in a certain field is passed over in favor of a candidate who promises to adapt with the company.
?
Passage Situation: Ectothermic animals, those that cannot control their body temperatures except through external means, often have developed behavioral adaptations that seem counterintuitive. The Peninsular Rock Agama, an Indian lizard, must sit completely exposed on heated rocks for extended periods each morning to reverse the cooling experienced the previous night, flattening its body to the rock when predatory birds fly overhead.
Structural Elements: An animal must endanger itself to maintain its body temperature environmentally, because it cannot do so internally.?
Key Aspect: A reliance on the outside environment is necessary, but dangerous.
Analogous Situation: A shopkeeper must publicly post his store"s prices in order to draw customers, although this enables larger stores to easily undercut those prices.
The?point of view?of a statement is the source to whom the statement is attributed. Often, a passage contains both statements that are presented from the author"s point of view (i.e. statements addressed directly from the author to the reader) and statements that the author attributes to another person or group. Recognizing changes in point of view is critical to understanding a passage.
The ability of the FDA to adequately monitor the information drug companies transmit to consumers through advertisements is, at best, questionable. According to a 2006 report by the United States Government Accountability Office, the FDA reviewed only a small portion of the advertising materials it received, and the agency could not ensure that it was identifying for review the materials it considered to be highest in priority. Though the study"s specific claims might be disputed, the broader implications of such a finding should be as clear to everyone as they are to me: advertising materials from drug companies cannot be trusted.
In this passage, the author starts by asserting her own opinion ("the FDA has only a questionable ability to monitor ads").
The second sentence begins with?according to..., which indicates that the statement to follow is presented from another party"s point of view. In this case, the other party is?the United States Government Accountability Office.
The final sentence returns to the author"s point of view. The use of the first-person pronoun?meindicates that this statement should be attributed to the author.
?
Certain inferences might be valid from the point of view of the United States Government Accountability Office, but not necessarily from the author"s point of view.
The FDA may not adequately review all of the advertising materials that it considers highest in priority.
This inference may be drawn?correctly?from the point of view of the United States Government Accountability Office. It can be concluded from the evidence outlined in the second sentence. However, from the point of view of the author, this inference is drawn?incorrectly. The beginning of the final sentence does not support this inference.
Many advertisements created by drug companies contain misleading information.
It is?incorrect?to draw this inference from the point of view of the United States Government Accountability Office. This group does not offer evidence that many advertisements will contain misleading information. However, from the point of view of the author, this inference is drawncorrectly. If the author"s statements are accepted as true,?this inference follows.
Recognizing logical keywords
Authors frequently make use of certain words to indicate to the reader the direction their argument is taking. Such words may be called?logical keywords,?indicators, or?direction words.
Many logical keywords fall into two groups: Keywords that indicate?continuity or support?and keywords that indicate?contrast. Usually, these words serve to introduce specific arguments or examples that the author wishes to discuss. Paying attention to logical keywords makes it easier to understand an author"s argument more quickly.
Keywords that indicate?continuity?or?support?signal that the statements that follow them agree with the preceding text.
The king does not believe in the right to a fair trial;?indeed, he summarily condemns peasants accused of sedition without even giving them a day in court.?
The word?indeed?signals that the king"s behavior?–?he summarily condemns peasants?– is an examplesupporting?the point that he?does not believe in the right to a fair trial.)
Keywords that indicate?contrast?signal that statements that follow them opposes what has been argued previously.
The king does not believe in the right to a fair trial;?nevertheless,?he has allowed some property owners to plead cases before the royal court.
The word?nevertheless?signals that the king"s behavior?contrasts?with what we"d expect given that hedoes not believe in the right to a fair trial.
Other common keywords and keyword pairs can indicate relationships of?cause and effect, addemphasis, or signal a?conclusion.
Common continuity keywords
Furthermore
In addition
Also
Moreover
And
For example
Next
Similarly
For instance
Plus
Besides
Indeed
?
Common contrast keywords
But
However
In contrast
On the other hand
Despite
Nevertheless
On the contrary
Conversely
?
Common cause and effect keywords
If...then...
because
as a result
?
Common emphasis keywords
the fact of the matter
possibly
no doubt
?
Common conclusion keywords
therefore
thus
no doubt
A conclusion is the final judgment to which the reasoning of an argument leads.? It is the main idea that the argument is trying to establish as true.
The conclusion of an argument is usually supported by both stated evidence and unstated assumptions.
There were muddy footprints near the door to the bedroom where the theft occurred, and the armoire next to the missing jewelry box was spattered with water.? Since it had started raining outside only two hours before, Sherlock Holmes concluded that the crime had been committed very recently.
What is the main point of Holmes" argument?
Holmes concluded?that the crime had been committed very recently.
?
As in this example, arguments are usually written so that the conclusion comes at the end.
My parents always call me at times when I can"t talk, so I should try to call them instead.
Poor weather always eventually gives way to fair weather; therefore, tomorrow"s weather will most likely be pleasant.
?
However, arguments can also be written such that the conclusion appears elsewhere.
Canada is a wonderful place to visit, because it has some of the most striking fall foliage in North America.
The?evidence?of Canada"s striking fall foliage supports the?conclusion?that Canada is a great place to visit.
Greg sleeps soundly when he goes to the gym, so going to the gym must be good for his health, especially given that he sometimes suffers from insomnia.
The?evidence?that Greg sleeps well after going to the gym and that he sometimes experiences insomnia supports the?conclusion?that going to the gym is good for Greg.
?
Words and word groups like?therefore,?in conclusion,?so, and?thus?often introduce conclusions.
I think, therefore I am.
I am?is the?conclusion?supported by the?evidence?I think.
The light is red, so you should stop.
You should stop?is the?conclusion?supported by the?evidence?the light is red.
Evidence is a fact or facts that are explicitly stated in support of an argument. Sometimes referred to as a premise or premises, evidence provides the basis for the reasoning that an argument uses to reach its conclusion.
A statement that, like evidence, supports an argument but that, unlike evidence, is left unstated or implied is known as an assumption. Most often, the reasoning that an argument uses to reach its conclusion relies upon both evidence and an assumption or assumptions.
Unless otherwise stated, evidence is irrefutable: its truth is certain within the confines of the argument.
?
There were muddy footprints near the door to the bedroom where the theft occurred, and the armoire next to the missing jewelry box was spattered with water. Since it had started raining outside only two hours before, Sherlock Holmes concluded that the crime had been committed very recently.
What facts are explicitly stated to support Holmes" argument? Evidence provided in this passage includes:
There were muddy footprints near the door.
The armoire was spattered with water.
It had started raining only two hours before.
The truth of these statements is certain, and they provide the basis for the argument"s reasoning.
Certain keywords and phrases can signal that a statement should be considered evidence. Examples of these include?the fact that,?because, and?in general, among others.
The fact that the sun has risen in the East up until now suggests that it will rise in the East again tomorrow.
The phrase?the fact that?indicates that what follows it—the sun has risen in the East—is employed as evidence in this sentence.
Because George Harrison was the least well-known member of the Beatles, he must be shy.
The word?because?indicates that what follows it—George Harrison was the least well-known member of the Beatles— is employed as evidence in this sentence.
In general, physicians are required to go through more formal education than are nurses, so physicians must be more effective health care providers.
The phrase?in general?indicates that what follows it—physicians are required to go through more formal education than are nurses—is employed as evidence in this sentence.
In well-organized passages, each sentence contributes a distinct part of the overall argument. Thus, readers are sometimes asked to identify the?logical role of a statement—the function of that sentence within a paragraph or within the passage as a whole.
Identifying the logical role of a statement requires paying careful attention to the general argument of the identifying purpose:entire passage, the particular argument of the defining the logical role of a paragraph:paragraph, and the meaning of the statement.
On The GMAT:
A reader may be asked to describe the logical role of a statement in either determining logical role of? statement in general terms:general or?determining logical role of? statement in?specific terms:specific terms. A general description of a statement uses abstract terms (deny a claim, introduce supporting evidence), while a specific description will use the ideas from the passage (deny Marshall"s claim that..., introduce evidence to support the biographical model of...).
Common Roles of Statements:
Some particular roles of statements appear frequently on the GMAT. However, there are a large number of possible roles for any given statement; this list should only be used as a starting point.
?Statements may present the?passage author"s?particular viewpoint about an idea in the passage.
?Statements may present the viewpoint of a?source named in the passage--usually that of a historian, theorist, or businessperson.
?Statements often provide?evidence?to support claims, models, theories or ideas from the passage.
?Statements may point out a specific?example?of an general idea or theory in action.
?Conversely, statements may point out a?general principle?that can be drawn from a specific example or examples presented in the passage.
?Statements often point out?flaws?or?counterexamples?that may?cast doubt?on claims made earlier in the passage.
?Statements sometimes point out?exceptions?to a model or theory with which the author otherwise supports.
Example:
While perhaps not the most eminent of the early 20th century labor movement leaders, William Dudley “Big Bill” Haywood had an imposing physical presence that, coupled with his bombastic personality and radical social beliefs, has ensured his place in U.S. labor history. Adding to his popular mythos is the fact that many aspects, both physical and mental, of his persona remain uncertain to this day.?Various sources describe him as being anywhere from six to seven feet tall and weighing anywhere from 225 to 300 pounds.?He was always photographed in profile to hide his missing right eye, an injury stemming from an accident whittling a slingshot when he was nine years old.?
In the argument above, the statement in boldface plays which of the following roles?
Stated generally, the logical role of the highlighted statement is?to provide evidence for a position. The?position?in question is that many aspects of Haywood"s persona remain uncertain, which has contributed to his role in history, a position stated in the preceding sentence.?
Stated specifically, the logical role of the highlighted statement is?to provide evidence supporting the claim that the proportions of Haywood"s physical form were unknown.
On some relatively rare occasions, test-takers will encounter a GMAT?critical reasoning question in an unusual format. It will provide a full argument?,?with?evidence,?a?conclusion?and an?assumption;?the argument often goes out of its way to rebut another argument. Then it will ask test-takers to identify the "roles" of two statements in the argument, which will be highlighted in a boldfaced font.
What makes this question type difficult is that it brings to the surface the underlying structure and terminology of arguments as used by the GMAT. In other words, the answer choices will refer to explicit logical and rhetorical terms such as:
?argument
?claim
?position
?opinion
?viewpoint or perspective
?assumption
?evidence
?conclusion
?rebuttal
?judgment
?proposal
?agree or disagree
?strengthen (or bolster, support, or "provide evidence for")
?weaken (or undermine, detract, or "provide evidence against")
Understanding what these terms mean, and more notably, what they mean specifically to the authors of the GMAT, is essential on this question type, and useful for many others as well. Knewton covers these terms in more detail in the "Reading and Reasoning" supplemental video lesson.
Unraveling Role of Statement Questions
Test-takers" main task on role of statement questions is to determine the specific role of each sentence in the argument.
Putting the argument into one"s own words, sentence by sentence, can help with this task. It can also be helpful to remember that in any one argument, there are usually two distinct viewpoints described: one that represents "common wisdom" or a certain proposition presented by some source, and another?(that of the argument"s author) that either agrees or disagrees with this proposition, and provides extra evidence to support its position.
These arguments can take more complex formats because test-takers are not being asked to strengthen or weaken them. Understanding the argument fully is the whole challenge of the question; therefore, the GMAT test-makers purposefully make these arguments convoluted and relatively difficult to understand.
Example:
Entrepreneur: In the last two years, there has been a sharp rise in the number of competitors vying to be the most successful cellular phone service provider. Some attribute this rise to the fact that broadcast frequencies,?which were once limited to a small number of satellite and tower-owning conglomerates, can now be accessed through small wireless routers. Actually, the fact that two years ago, an anti-trust law was passed?prohibiting companies that manufacture cellular telephone handsets from also being cellular phone service providers?is far more important in instigating the rise in the number of competing providers, and the rise is likely to continue unabated.
The boldfaced statements play which of the following roles in the above argument?
Notice that the boldfaced statements tend to be "facts," which can either be evidence, conclusions, or facts that relate to evidence or conclusions. Therefore, it is always wise to first identify the conclusion(s) and supporting evidence in the argument outright.
Conclusion of "some": The rise in cell phone service providers is due to changes broadcast frequency access.
Evidence to support this conclusion: Access was once limited, and now (presumably) is not.
Conclusion of Entrepreneur: The rise in cell phone service providers is actually due to a certain anti-trust law.?
Evidence to support this conclusion: This anti-trust law prohibited certain companies from being providers.
The first boldfaced statement supports the evidence used by "some," and the second is evidence used by the entrepreneur, who has a different, and opposing, point of view. The correct answer would reflect this structure, using the rhetorical vocabulary in the list above.
Agreement of compound subjects connected by "and"
A subject that contains two or more nouns connected by a conjunction is called a compound subject. When the parts of a compound subject are connected by the conjunction?and??or the correlative conjunction?both...and..., the subject nearly always functions as plural. Therefore, it agrees with a plural verb.
Jack?and?Jill climb?together.
The compound subject?Jack and Jill?agrees with the plural verb?climb.
?
Incorrect
Your health?and?your?well-being is?in the doctor"s hands.
The compound subject?your health?and?yourwell-being?agrees with a plural verb, not the singular verb?is.
Correct
Your health?and?your?well-being are?in the doctor"s hands.
The plural verb?are?agrees with the compound subject?your health?and?your?well-being.
?
When a compound subject is treated as a single unit or when the nouns in a compound subject refer to the same person or thing, treat the subject as singular.
Strawberries and cream?were?last-minute additions to the menu.
Strawberries?and?cream?were added separately to the menu; therefore, this subject is plural. It agrees with the plural verb?were.
Strawberries and cream?was?a last-minute addition to the menu.
Strawberries?and?cream?was added to the menu as a unit; therefore, this subject is singular. It agrees with the singular verb?was.
Sue"s?friend and advisor?was surprised by her decision.
The singular verb?was?implies that each noun in the compound subject?friend?and?advisor?refers?to the same person.
?
When a compound subject is?preceded?by?each?or?every, treat it as singular.
Each?tree, shrub, and vine?needs?to be sprayed.
Every?car, truck, and van?is?required to pass inspection.
?
When a compound subject is?followed?by?each, treat it as plural.
Jack and Jill?each?have?different climbing styles.
Collective nouns and generic nouns as subjects
Collective nouns name a class or a group.?Jury, committee, audience, troop, couple, bunch, set,?andcouple?are examples of collective nouns. A generic noun represents a typical member of a group (or any member of a group).
It can be challenging to determine correct pronoun-antecedent agreement and subject-verb agreement in sentences with collective nouns or generic nouns. These nouns appear grammatically singular but are used to refer to multiple items or individuals.
Ordinarily the group named by a collective noun functions as a unit, so the collective noun is singular.
The committee?grants?its?permission for the artist to place her sculpture in the park.
The committee?as a whole, not each committee member on his or her own, allows the artist to install her sculpture. Therefore,?committee?is a?singular?noun; the verb?grants?and the pronoun?its?are correspondingly singular.
?If the members of the group function as individuals, the collective noun should be treated as plural.
The committee?put?their?signatures?on the document.
A group as a whole cannot sign a document; the committee members much?each?sign the document. Therefore,?committee?is a?plural?noun; the verb?put?and pronoun?their?are correspondingly plural.
?
A generic noun may seem to have a plural meaning since it can refer to any member of a group. However, generic nouns are grammatically singular.
?
Incorrect
The?black bear?are?remarkably strong?climbers.
?
Correct
The?black bear is?a remarkably strong?climber.
Black bear?is a singular generic noun referring to the any individual member of this species.
??
Incorrect
Every?medical student?must study diligently ifthey are?to succeed.
?
Correct
Every?medical student?must study diligently ifhe or she is?to succeed.
Medical student?is a singular generic noun referring to any individual member of this group.
?
Prepositions and prepositional phrases
A preposition is a word that describes a relationship.? Usually, this relationship is related to?position?ortime.
Prepositions include words like?in,?through,?under,?to?(describing a relationship of position),?before,after,?until?(describing a relationship of time),?by, and?of?(describing other relationships).
Usually, a preposition is followed by a noun or pronoun that provides a reference point for the relationship that the preposition expresses. This noun or pronoun is called the?object of the preposition. Together, a preposition and its object make up a?prepositional phrase.
His cousins were?under the porch.
Under the porch?is a prepositional phrase made up of the preposition?under?and the object?the porch.
I put on my trench coat?before the storm.
Before the storm?is a prepositional phrase made up of the preposition?before?and the object?the storm.
The novel was written?by Rudyard Kipling.
By Rudyard Kipling?is a prepositional phrase made up of the preposition?by?and the object?Rudyard Kipling.
Prepositional phrases function as modifiers (that is, as adjectives or adverbs). A prepositional phrase modifying a noun or pronoun nearly always appears immediately following the noun or pronoun it modifies.
Variety is the spice?of life.
The prepositional phrase?of life?modifies the noun?spice.
The display?in the store?contained many Halloween decorations.
The prepositional phrase?in the store?modifies the noun?display.
?
A prepositional phrase functioning as an adverb may appear in different locations within a sentence.
Do not judge a book?by its cover.
By its cover?is a prepositional phrase modifying the verb?judge.
After midnight, she fell asleep.
After midnight?is a prepositional phrase modifying the verb?fell.
Occasionally, prepositions can appear without an object. These prepositions always function as adverbs.
The manager is going?out, but the salespeople are coming?in.
The prepositions?out?and?in?act as adverbs modifying the verb phrases?is?going?and?are?coming, respectively.
The investment bank might go?under.
(Under?is a preposition modifying the verb?go.)
?
?
Common Prepositions
aboard
about
above
across
after
against
along
amid
among
around
at
aside
athwart
atop
barring
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
but
by
despite
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
minus
near
next
of
off
on
onto
opposite
out
outside
over
pace
past
per
plus
round
save
since
than
through
throughout
times
to
toward
towards
under
underneath
unlike
until
up
upon
versus
via
with
within
without
worth
?
?
An appositive is a modifier that renames a noun or pronoun. An appositive differs from an adjective in that an appositive is itself a noun (or a set of nouns and modifiers). In their role as modifiers of nouns, however, there is little practical difference between appositives and adjectives.
Politicians,?acrobats at heart, can both sit on a fence and keep their ears to the ground.
The appositive?acrobats at heart?modifies the meaning of politicians by providing another name for this group of people.
Our manager?Bob?cut costs by twenty percent.
The appositive?Bob?modifies the meaning of the noun?manager?by providing another name for this person.
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An appositive may be restrictive, that is, essential to the meaning of the noun that it renames. In this case, the appositive should not be set off between commas.
The forensic scientist?Joe Henson?gave a long-winded lecture.
The appositive?Joe Henson?is not set off by commas, so it functions as a restrictive appositive. This grammatical form indicates that it"s critical to the meaning of the sentence that Joe Henson, in particular, gave the lecture.
?
An appositive may be nonrestrictive, that is, not essential to the meaning of the noun that it renames. In this case, the appositive should be set off between commas.
A medical administrator,?Herman Jones, gave a long-winded lecture.
The appositive?Herman Jones?is set off by commas, so it functions as a nonrestrictive appositive. This grammatical form indicates that it"s?not?critical to the meaning of the sentence that Herman Jones, in particular, gave the lecture.
Adjective clausesAn adjective clause (also known as a relative clause) is a group of words that contains both a subject and a main verb and that functions as a single grammatical unit modifying a noun or pronoun. Like other adjectives, adjective clauses clarify the meaning of a noun by making this meaning more specific. An adjective clause usually begins with a relative pronoun (like?who, which, that,?or?whom) whose antecedent is also the noun that the adjective clause modifies.
The arrow?that has left the bow?never returns.
That has left the bow?is an adjective clause introduced by the relative pronoun?that. The antecedent of?that?is?arrow, the noun modified by the adjective clause.
The man?who is considered the greatest boxer in the land?suffered a crushing defeat last week.
Who is considered the greatest boxer in the land?is an adjective clause introduced by the relative pronoun?who. The antecedent of?who?is?man, the noun modified by the adjective clause.
?
Some adjective clauses begin with a relative adverb, like?when?or?where.
The restaurant?where they serve the best potatoes?is Angelo Maxie"s.
Where they serve the best potatoes?is an adjective clause introduced by the relative adverb?where.
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Relative pronouns are sometimes omitted in elliptical constructions.
The things?that?we know best are the things?that?we were taught in kindergarten.
The things we know best are the things we were taught in kindergarten.
Both?of these constructions are?acceptable; the second is an ellipsis in which the two occurrences of the relative pronoun?that?are omitted.
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Since a relative clause begins with a relative pronoun, relative clauses often invert the normal subject-verb-object structure of clauses.? This effect is particularly notable when the relative pronoun functions as the object of a preposition.
We rarely forgive those?whom we love.
The relative pronoun?whom?is the direct object of the verb?love.
The limousine?in which?he arrived had tinted windows.
The relative pronoun?which?is the object of the preposition?in.
A?verbal?is a form of a verb that functions not as a main verb, but rather as a modifier or noun. One type of verbal is a?participle.
Participles?come in two tenses, past and present. Present participles have the form?verb?+?-ing. Past participles have the same form as the simple past tense verb (usually?verb + -ed). Participles function asadjectives.
The?exhausted?horse took?heaving?breaths as it ran.
(The past participle?exhausted?modifies the noun?horse. The present participle?heaving?modifies the noun?breaths.)
?
In certain ways, participles behave like verbs. Participles can be modified by adverbs. Participles derived from transitive verbs can take direct and indirect objects, and participles derived from linking verbs can take subject complements.
A participle, any adverbs that modify it, and any objects or complements associated with it are collectively known as a?participial?phrase. Like a participle, a participial phrase functions as a single adjective.
Swiftly sending her mother the letter, Joan hoped that her apology would prove more than?sadlywasted?effort.
(The participle?sending?is modified by the adverb?swiftly?and has the direct object?the letter?and the indirect object?her mother. Together, they form the participial phrase?swiftly sending?her mother?the letter, which?modifies the noun?Joan. The participial phrase?sadly wasted?modifies the noun?effort.)
?
A?participial phrases can precede, follow, or appear at a distance from the noun or pronoun that it modifies.
Having always desired to be President, Eisenhower saw his lifelong dream fulfilled.
Eisenhower,?having always desired to be President,?saw his lifelong dream fulfilled.
Eisenhower saw his lifelong dream fulfilled,?having always desired to be President.
(The participial phrase?having always desired to be President?may appear before, after, or at a distance from?Eisenhower, the noun that it modifies.)
Pronouns with ambiguous antecedents
Pronouns should clearly refer to one antecedent. Sometimes, however, more than one noun within a sentence may be able grammatically to function as a pronoun"s antecedent. Sentences that contain a pronoun with an ambiguous antecedent should be revised to eliminate the ambiguity.
Often, the best way to address this error is to replace the pronoun with the intended antecedent.
?
Incorrect
When Gloria set the pitcher on the glass table,?it?broke
Either?pitcher?or?table?could function as the antecedent of?it. Which one broke?
Correct
When Gloria set the pitcher on the glass table,?the pitcher?broke.
?
??
Incorrect
Jack told James that?he?had won the lottery.
Either?Jack?or?James?could function as the antecedent of?he. Which one won?
Correct
Jack told James that?James?had won the lottery.
?
A related error is the use of the pronouns?this, that, which?and?it?to refer to broad ideas expressed in entire sentences or clauses. In such cases, it"s not clear what element of the sentence or clause should be considered the pronoun"s antecedent. In order to clarify this ambiguity, revise the sentence either by replacing the pronoun with a noun or by supplying a clear antecedent for the pronoun.
?
Incorrect
More and more often, especially in large cities, innocent citizens find themselves the victims of serious crimes; however, we"ve learned to accept?this?with only minor complaints.
The pronoun?this?refers broadly to the entire independent clause?more and more often... crimes.
Correct
More and more often, especially in large cities, innocent citizens find themselves the victims of serious crimes; however, we"ve learned to accept?urban lawlessness?with only minor complaints.
The ambiguous pronoun?this?is replaced by the more specific modifier and noun?urban lawlessness.
Acceptable
More and more often, especially in large cities, innocent citizens find themselves the victims of serious crimes; though no one is happy about urban lawlessness, we"ve learned to accept?this?with only minor complaints.
The sentence is revised to provide the pronoun?this?with the more clear antecedenturban lawlessness.
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Order of tenses
The?tense?of a verb indicates the time of the action or state of being that the verb expresses. The relationship between the time associated with different clauses within a sentence determines a certain relationship between the tenses of the main verbs of these clauses.
When the verb of the main clause is in the present tense, this relationship is fairly simple: A verb in another clause should be in the past, present, or future tense according to whether its action takes place before, at the same time as, or after the action of the main clause"s verb.
Other tenses can be more challenging. The GMAT often tests?the past perfect?tense and?the present perfect tense.
?The past perfect tense
When the helper verb?had?comes before a form of the verb called the participle, the?action described took place before another past tense event. The event that occurred in the far past (had + participle verb) is in a tense called the "past perfect."
When the logic of a sentence requires that the time at which the?far past event?occurred is different from the time at which the?regular old past tense event?occurred, the past perfect is necessary.
Needs past perfect:?By the time Dennis showed up to the baseball game, we?waited?for three hours.
Correct:?By the time Dennis showed up to the baseball game, we?had been waiting?for three hours.
We?had been waiting?before?Dennis?showed up. It is necessary to distinguish between the two different past events.
Sometimes, however, the sentence contains a time clue that clearly differentiates between the two past tense events. In these cases, the past perfect is not wrong, but it is not always necessary.
Correct without past perfect:?Because we already boarded up the windows before the tornado hit, our house did not suffer much damage.
Correct with past perfect:?Because we?had already boarded?up the windows before the tornado hit, our house did not suffer much damage.
The sentence above contains the time cues?already?and?before?(the tornado hit), so the two events are clearly differentiated. The past perfect is therefore not?necessary?in order to distinguish between the two time periods, but using the past perfect is not wrong.
If an event in the past perfect did not take place before another past tense event, then it is not acceptable to use the past perfect.
Incorrect:?Viola?had picked?twelve violets from the new garden, so the landscapers are angry with her.
Correct:?Viola?picked?twelve violets from the new garden, so the landscapers are angry with her.?
There is no past tense action for?had picked?to come before in this sentence, so the past perfect cannot be used here.
?The present perfect tense
To describe an action that began at some point in the past and continues in the present, place the helper verb?has?(singular) or?have?(plural) before the past participle form of a main verb? This tense is called the present perfect tense (or the present perfect progressive tense if the helper verb pairs?has been?or?have been?come before the verb).
The soup kitchen?has fed?millions of people since its opening in 1980.
Though it is only noon, the ducks?have already?eaten?six loaves of bread today.
Gus is sunburned because he?has been working?outside all afternoon.
In each sentence above, the present perfect tense correctly describes an action that spanned a period of time in the past and that may be continuing right now. The ending point for an action in the present perfect cannot be specified.
DO?NOT use the present perfect with specific time expressions like:?yesterday/last week/last year,after/before?the storm,?when?I was a child (time in the past),?in?the decades following the war (time in the past).
The present perfect is often used with expressions such as:?since?the war,?from?1960?to/until?now (time that includes the present),?recently/lately,?for?the past twenty minutes (time that includes the present),?in?the last week (time that includes the present).
Take home points:
?Had + past participle verb?forms the past perfect tense, which must describe an event that took place?before?another past tense event.
?The present perfect tense (has/have + past participle) describes a time that began in the past and could continue; the action"s "expiration date" cannot be specified.
?
A verb is a word used to express an action or a state of being. The?tense?of a verb indicates the time of the action or state of being that the verb expresses.
Verbs that describe actions or states of being that take place at the?same time?must be in the?same tense.
John?whistled?while he?walks?his dog.
(Incorrect. The word?while?indicates that the two actions expressed by the verbs?whistled?and?walksmust take place at the same time. Therefore, they should be expressed in the same tense. However,whistled?is in the past tense, while?walks?is in the present tense.)
John?whistles?while he?walks?his dog.
John?whistled?while he?walked?his dog.
(Correct. The verbs in these two sentences are consistent in tense; the first sentence locates these actions in the present, while the second locates these actions in the past.)
?
George?wanted?to root for the Giants, but his father?sees?this as an act of betrayal.
(Incorrect. The verbs?wanted?and?sees?describe actions that take place at the same time, but these verbs are in different tenses.)
George?wanted?to root for the Giants, but his father?saw?this as an act of betrayal.
(Correct. The verbs?wanted?and?saw?describe actions that take place at the same time; both are in the same tense, the past tense.)
Wordy constructions make sentences needlessly difficult to understand because they contain extra words that do not contribute to the meaning of the sentence.
One common type of wordy construction is an awkward gerund phrase. A gerund is a form of a verb that ends in?-ing?and functions as a noun. A?gerund phrase is made up of a gerund, any words that modify the gerund, and any objects of the gerund.
?
Gerund phrases in which the gerund is modified by a prepositional phrase beginning with?of?are often awkward. Such wordiness may be corrected by transforming the gerund into a noun, a main verb, or a participle.
The actors" performing of the play was magnificent.
(Wordy and awkward. The gerund phrase?performing of the play?is awkward and unclear. This phrase is the subject of the sentence, and in general, nouns make clearer subjects than gerunds. In addition, main verbs convey the idea of an action more clearly than gerunds do.)
The actors"?performance?of the play was magnificent.
(Correct. The word?performance?is a noun. This sentence more clearly expresses the idea of a thing that?was magnificent.)
The actors?performed?the play magnificently.
(Also?correct. The word?performed?is a main verb. This word expresses action more clearly than does the gerund?performing.)
The falling of temperatures?during the autumn months signals animals to prepare to hibernate.
(Wordy and awkward. The gerund phrase?the falling of temperatures?is somewhat awkward. The gerund?falling?serves as the subject of this sentence, while the temperature is really the most important idea in the sentence.)
The?falling temperatures?during the autumn months signal animals to prepare to hibernate.
(Correct. The participle?falling?modifies the noun?temperatures, which functions as the subject of this sentence. This more clearly expresses the importance of temperature within this sentence.)
?
Some wordy gerund phrases are nested inside wordy prepositional phrases. Such constructions are generally better expressed as infinitive phrases.
A grapefruit spoon is the most fun utensil I"ve ever used?in the eating of breakfast.
(Wordy. The gerund phrase?the eating of breakfast?functions as the object of the preposition?in. This construction is rather difficult to understand.)
A grapefruit spoon is the most fun utensil I"ve ever used?to eat breakfast.
(Correct. The infinitive phrase?to eat breakfast?expresses the sense of this sentence much more clearly than the wordy prepositional and gerund phrases do.)
Wordy use of "being"
Among the wordy or awkward constructions you"ll encounter on the GMAT is the awkward, unpreferable use of the word "being." Because the Sentence Correction section is about choosing thebest?version of a sentence, it is important to eliminate awkward and indirect words like?being. Be skeptical of the word?being, and always check other options for more clarity and conciseness.
Beware of all of the wordy and awkward constructions. The best version of a sentence:
?almost never contains the word "being"
Awkward:?Being in shock by his report card, Marc claimed that he failed for no reason.
Direct:?Shocked by his report card,?Marc claimed that he failed for no reason.
?is active
Passive:?There was pie that was brought to the party by us.
Active:?We brought pie to the party.
?is concise
Wordy:?Tony rented?Scream?for the reason that he had the purpose of fulfilling his desire of watching a scary movie for over a month.
Concise:?Tony rented?Scream?because he had been wanting to watch a scary movie for over a month.
?does not usually contain the word "having"
Awkward:?Having the most goals scored during the season to be proud about, Gladis bragged to her teammates.
Direct:?Proud that she had scored the most goals during the season, Gladis bragged to her teammates.
?does?not?contain extra prepositions
Awkward:?Miguel locked himself in his room for hours with the intent of causing his parents to become angry.
Direct:?Miguel locked himself in his room for hours to make his parents angry.
?does?not?contain unnecessary pronouns
Ambiguous and wordy:?The zoo added a colorful birds exhibit, and it was worth how much it paid for it.
Direct:?The zoo added a colorful birds exhibit, which was worth what the zoo paid for it.
?avoids the use of an -ing word after a possessive
Awkward: No one predicted the rain"s ruining of our plans.
Direct:?No one predicted that the rain would ruin our plans.
Wordy constructions make sentences needlessly difficult to understand because they contain extra words that do not contribute to the meaning of the sentence.
One such set of extra words that appears especially frequently is?having been.?Having been?usually appears as part of a participial phrase that could be more effectively expressed using a main verb or an alternative phrase. Usually, the meaning of the sentence is clearer without?having been.
Here are some examples:
Wordy
Having been running?the race for an hour, the favorite was still far behind the leader.
Having been?is wordy here. We should use a more direct word to relate time.
Better
After running?for an hour, the favorite was still far behind the leader.
The time relationship conveyed by?having beenis more concisely and effectively expressed byafter.
?
Wordy
Having been devastated by a tornado?two decades ago, the town has finally been rebuilt.
Here,?having been?gives the sentence two passive phrases, making it wordy and awkward.
Better
The town that a tornado devastated?two decades ago has finally been rebuilt.
The participial phrase?having been devastated?is rephrased as a relative clause with the active main verb?devastated.
?
Wordy constructions make sentences needlessly difficult to understand because they contain extra words that do not contribute to the meaning of the sentence.
One common type of wordy construction is an unnecessary relative clause. A relative clause is a word group beginning with a relative pronoun (like?who, which, that,?or?whom) that contains a subject and a verb and that functions as an adjective modifying a noun.
?
A relative clause whose main verb is a form of?be?can be wordy. Such clauses often contain modifiers that do not require the presence of a relative clause to convey their meaning.
The boy?who was tall?and?who was handsome?had many admirers.
(Wordy. The relative clauses?who was tall?and?who was handsome?merely connect the adjectives?talland?handsome?to the noun?boy. This could be accomplished more clearly without using a relative clause.)
The?tall,?handsome?boy had many admirers.
(Correct. The adjectives?tall?and?handsome?now modify the noun?boy?directly.)
The scientist?who was a genius?discovered a new form of matter.
(Wordy. The relative clauses?who was a genius?merely connects the noun?genius?to the noun?scientist. This could be accomplished more clearly without using a relative clause.)
The?genius?scientist discovered a new form of matter.
(Correct.?Genius,?functioning here as an adjective, modifies the noun?scientist?directly.)
?
Relative clauses that do not involve forms of the verb?be?can also be wordy. Sometimes, a relative clause and the noun that it modifies have the same meaning as a single word or a shorter word group. It is generally preferable to use this word or word group rather than the relative clause that provides its definition.
Yesterday, I spoke with a?reporter?who works for a newspaper.
(Wordy. The relative clause?who works for a newspaper?modifies the noun?reporter. Together, they mean the same thing as a?newspaper reporter.)
Yesterday, I spoke with a?newspaper reporter.
(Correct. A?reporter who works for a newspaper?is a?newspaper reporter.)
?
Shin splints often afflict?people who go on runs.
(Wordy. The relative clauses?who go on runs?modifies the noun?people. Together, they make up the definition of the noun?runners.)
Shin splints often afflict?runners.
(Correct.?People who go on runs?are known as?runners.)
Wordy constructions make sentences needlessly difficult to understand because they contain extra words that do not contribute to the meaning of the sentence.
One common type of wordy construction is an unnecessary prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases are made up of a preposition (a word that expresses a relationship) followed by a noun functioning as the object of the preposition.
?
Wordy prepositional phrases most often begin with the preposition?with,?of, or?in, though they can begin with other prepositions as well.
While?in the position of police commissioner, Ray was respected by both his subordinates and city politicians.
(Wordy. The prepositional phrases?in the position?modifies the noun?Ray, and the prepositional phraseof police commissioner?modifies the noun?position. These phrases convey the idea that Ray was police commissioner.)
While?police commissioner, Ray was respected by both his subordinates and city politicians.
(Correct.?Police commissioner?expresses the same idea as the prepositional phrases?in the position of police commissioner?in a more clear and direct manner.)
A national debt?in the amount?of a trillion dollars is nothing unusual for the United States.
(Wordy. The prepositional phrases?in the amount?modifies the noun?debt, and the prepositional phraseof a trillion dollars?modifies the noun?amount. These phrases convey the idea that the debt is a trillion dollars.)
A?trillion-dollar?national debt is nothing unusual for the United States.
(Correct.The adjective?trillion-dollar?expresses the same idea as the prepositional phrases?in the amount of a trillion dollars?in a more clear and direct manner.)
?
When the object of a preposition is a verbal or is modified by a verbal, the prepositional phrase is often wordy. There is often a more direct way to express such an idea using a main verb rather than a verbal.
With?women from all over the state?calling?the senator, he decided to vote in favor of the bill.
(Wordy. This long prepositional phrase begins with the preposition?with?and contains the verbal?calling, a participle.)
Women from all over the state?were calling?the senator, so he decided to vote in favor of the bill.
(Correct. The sentence is rephrased so that?were calling?is an active verb phrase rather than a verbal and the preposition?with?is eliminated. This expresses the sentence"s meaning more clearly and directly.)
In the running of the race, the young man became dehydrated.
(Wordy. The prepositional phrase?in the running of the race?contains the verbal?running, a gerund.)
While he was running the race, the young man became dehydrated.
(Correct. The subordinate clause?while he was?running the race?contains the main verb phrase?wasrunning. This expresses the sentence"s meaning more clearly and directly.)
Idiomatic prepositions
A?preposition?is a small word that has a large impact on a sentence. Prepositions hold sentences together by creating relationships between ideas. Prepositions are relationship or directional words. For example:
The amount?of water?left?in the pool?has decreased.
By?cutting carbs and exercising, Marvin has lost weight.
In the sentences above,?of,?in, and?by?are prepositions. The preposition plus the noun after the preposition is called a?prepositional phrase.?Of water,?in the pool, and?by cutting carbs and exercising?are the complete prepositional phrases.
The noun or -ing word acting as a noun activity (cutting?or?exercising) that follows a preposition is called the?object?of the preposition. A preposition can link a noun or a verb to this?object. By linking/describing a noun or a verb, prepositions can act as adjectives or as adverbs.
Certain nouns and verbs must be paired with certain prepositions. Some of these noun/verb + preposition pairs do not follow rules; these pairs exist... well, just because. When something exists "just because," it is called an?idiom.
The list of noun/verb + preposition pairings that exist "well... just because... " is endless, but the GMAT tests the same pairings over and over again. Make sure to check out the content for "Common idioms" to see a complete list of the most common pairings.
Sometimes, a noun or verb can be paired with several different prepositions, and the correct preposition to use depends on the context of the sentence. Like any other word, each preposition carries with it a different meaning. The preposition used depends on the intended meaning of the prepositional phrase. For example, an object can be?above?or?below?something, or an event can occurbefore?or?after?another event.
On the GMAT, the most commonly used prepositions are?of,?to,?and?for. Both?to?and?for?are commonly used to introduce the purpose, result, or recipient of something. For example:
The athlete stretches?to?relax his muscles.
I gave the gift?to?my mother.
I play the violin?for?fun.
The sandwich is?for?Samantha.
The preposition?of?is commonly used to further define a noun;?of?specifies something about this noun. In this way, the preposition?of?is often definitional.?Of?often means?related to?or?characterized by. Of?can also indicate ownership. For example:
Last year was a year?of?hardship for the old lady. (The year was "characterized by" hardship.)
The rungs?of?the ladder are rusty. (The rungs "belong to" the ladder.)
When answer choices differ because they use different prepositions, think about the relationship between the words connected by the preposition.
The contractor drew up a plan?of?the new house.
The plan?to?go to the store first thing in the morning makes sense.
In the first example, the plan is further specified as the one?related to?the new house; the prepositionof?expresses this relationship. In the second example, the preposition?to?introduces the purpose of the plan.
Again, the list of the most commonly tested idioms is available under "Common idioms." The nouns or verbs that can take several prepositions require an understanding of the relationship between the words connected. Think:?Does the preposition indicate ownership? Does it introduce the purpose of something?
Take home points:
i.Certain nouns and verbs must be paired with certain prepositions. Some of these noun/verb + preposition pairs do not follow rules; these pairs exist... well, just because. Read the content for "Common Idioms."
ii.On the GMAT, the most commonly used prepositions are?of,?to, and?for. Both?to?and?for?are commonly used to introduce the purpose or result of something.? The preposition?of?is definitional and is commonly used to mean?identified by or characterized by?or to indicated ownership. When answer choices differ because they use different prepositions, focus on the relationship between the words connected by the preposition.
?
An argument draws a conclusion based on stated evidence and unstated assumptions that form a logically necessary connection between the evidence and the conclusion.
When an argument"s assumption is unwarranted or unlikely, the argument suffers from a logical flaw. When an argument"s assumption is reasonable, the argument is valid.
Often, a certain piece of relevant information or the answer to a certain relevant question would be particularly useful in assessing the validity of an argument.
A new technique for municipal water treatment is more expensive than a traditional technique. However, use of the new technique should result in a decrease in a city"s total public utility expenses. The new technique produces cleaner water, so city residents will use more water and thus pay the city more for water treatment services.
Information that might be relevant to establishing the validity of this argument:
The results of a study on whether people"s water usage tends to increase when water becomes cleaner.
This is?relevant?to the validity of the argument. This argument assumes that people use more water when the water supply is cleaner. The results of this study will either affirm or deny this assumption.
The outcome of an analysis of whether the increased payments from residents offset higher costs to the city when water usage increases.
This is?relevant?to the validity of the argument. This argument assumes that when residents use more water, the city makes more money. The results of this study will either affirm or deny this assumption.
The quality of the city"s current water supply compared with the water in several other major cities.
This is?not relevant?to the validity of the argument. This argument addresses the outcome of a change in water treatment techniques within one city alone. Therefore, the quality of the city"s current water compared with other cities" water does not help establish the soundness of any assumption in this argument.
Another example:
After several years of use, one brand of keys wear down and are no longer able to open a certain brand of locks. The keymaker claims that this wear is due to the materials that this particular lockmaker uses.
Information that might be relevant to establishing the validity of this argument:
The results of an experiment evaluating how quickly the keymaker"s keys deteriorated when used with other brands of locks.
This is?relevant?to the validity of the argument. This argument assumes that this particular lockmaker uses materials that are especially damaging to keys. The results of this experiement will either affirm or deny this assumption.
The results of an experiment evaluating how long it takes the lock to wear down until it is no longer usable.
This is?not relevant?to the validity of the argument. This argument addresses the cause of the deterioration of keys, not that of locks. Therefore, the rate at which locks deteriorate does not help establish the soundness of any assumption in this argument.
An assumption is an idea that provides a logically necessary connection between the evidence and the conclusion of an argument but that is not explicitly stated in the argument.
Most attempts to strengthen an argument focus on showing one or more of the argument"s assumptions to be true (or at least likely).
One way to do this is to affirm the assumption directly.
Consuming a half-cup of healthy nuts per day has been shown to improve the speed at which certain mental tasks can be performed. Therefore, consuming a half-cup of peanuts per day would improve graduate students" performance on exams.
Two assumptions on which this argument relies are:
1) Peanuts are considered healthy nuts.
2) The?certain mental tasks?whose speed can be increased by eating healthy nuts impact graduate students" performance on exams.
?
Each of the following statements strengthen this argument.
Peanuts are considered healthy nuts.
This statement directly?affirms?the first assumption noted above.
The mental tasks whose speed can be increased by eating healthy nuts have an effect on a student"s performance on an exam.
This statement directly?affirms?the second assumption noted above.
An assumption is an idea that provides a logically necessary connection between the evidence and the conclusion of an argument but that is not explicitly stated in the argument.
Most attempts to strengthen an argument focus on showing one or more of the argument"s assumptions to be true (or at least likely).
One way to do this is to affirm the assumption directly.
Consuming a half-cup of healthy nuts per day has been shown to improve the speed at which certain mental tasks can be performed. Therefore, consuming a half-cup of peanuts per day would improve graduate students" performance on exams.
Two assumptions on which this argument relies are:
1) Peanuts are considered healthy nuts.
2) The?certain mental tasks?whose speed can be increased by eating healthy nuts impact graduate students" performance on exams.
?
Each of the following statements strengthen this argument.
Peanuts are considered healthy nuts.
This statement directly?affirms?the first assumption noted above.
The mental tasks whose speed can be increased by eating healthy nuts have an effect on a student"s performance on an exam.
This statement directly?affirms?the second assumption noted above.
An argument draws a conclusion based on stated evidence and unstated assumptions that form a logically necessary connection between the evidence and the conclusion. When an argument"s assumption is unwarranted or unlikely, the argument suffers from a logical flaw.
Mikki is the best player in the Wabash Roller Hockey League. Mikki plays for the Wildcats. Therefore, the Wildcats are the best team in the league.
The argument suffers from a?logical flaw. It is based on the?unwarranted assumption?that the team with the best player must be the best team. There may be other factors that determine the ability of a team besides the ability of its best player.
The Arrivederci Eatery on Main Street has recently received the highest rating in the city"s restaurant review guide. Several celebrities, among them the film star Bronco Cantrell, are regular patrons of Arrivederci. Therefore, the high rating received by Arrivederci in the restaurant review guide must be due to the presence of celebrities as regular patrons.
This argument suffers from a?logical flaw. It is based on the?unlikely?assumption?that the regular presence of celebrities is the cause of the restaurant"s high rating. It is more likely that the high rating caused the celebrities to visit the restaurant.
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Logical flaws can be stated in specific terms or in more general terms.
The argument’s author fails to consider that any of Mikki"s teammates may be significantly worse than the average player in the league.
This is a?specific?statement of the flaw in the first argument above.
The argument"s author fails to consider that what is true of a part of a group is not necessarily true of the whole group.
This is a?general?statement of the flaw in the first argument above.
The author fails to consider that celebrities might have begun to frequent Arrivederci after the restaurant received a high rating.
This is a?specific?statement of the flaw in the second argument above.
The author concludes that one thing was caused by another, whereas the evidence is consistent with the reverse cause-and-effect relationship.
This is a?general?statement of the flaw in the second argument above.
Passage-based inferences
Not all the points an author wishes to make are stated explicitly in a passage. Readers are often expected to make?inferences. An inference is a conclusion that is not explicitly stated in a passage but that is strongly supported by the text. Drawing inferences from a passage is sometimes referred to as "reading between the lines."
Passage-based inferences?are those in which the question stem does not provide a specific topic from which the inference will be drawn. Instead, the test-taker must draw an inference from the passage as a whole, or locate the correct section of the passage.
Drawing passage-based inferences often requires readers to compare and contrast the author"s description of two or more topics; it also requires readers to pay close attention to an author"s tone and point of view.
Most important, perhaps, is the ability to eliminate the four?invalid?inferences in the incorrect answer choices. This entails understanding what?cannot?be logically inferred from a passage.
Example:
Passage: The Crimean War (1853-1856) is widely known as a catastrophic military exchange, but it also marked the first wartime use of several technologies. Railroads, for example, were never effectively used in tactical warfare before they were employed in this war to transport wounded soldiers and supplies. The Crimean War was the first European war to be photographed, and the first war that was covered live internationally by journalists, due to the invention of the electric telegraph. New types of ammunition was used in traditional weapons such as artillery and bayonets.
What can be properly inferred from this passage? Most notably, the chronological aspect; every invention used for the?first?time in the Crimean War must?never?have been used previously. However, the GMAT always includes important details that could lead to tempting, but invalid inferences:
Invalid Inference: The Crimean War was the first war to be photographed.
Invalid Inference: The Crimean War marked the first use of weapons such as bayonets and artillery.?
Invalid Inference: The new technologies used made the Crimean War into a military disaster.
Invalid Inference: Before the Crimean War, railroads had only been used to promote peace.
All of these present tricky distortions of facts in the passage. Comparing the answer choices?closely?to the relevant sections of the passage reveals the errors. Meanwhile, a valid inference will reflect a piece of information in the passage, or connect two pieces of the passage in a direct way that is fully supported by the facts in the passage:
Valid Inference: No European War had ever been photographed before the year 1853.
Valid Inference: New forms of ammunition can be used in traditional weaponry.
Valid Inference: Before the invention of the electric telegraph, international live war reporting was never attempted.
An inference is a statement that can be logically concluded from another statement or statements. Just as an assumption is an unstated but logically necessary part of an argument, an inference is an unstated but logically valid conclusion of a set of statements.
Some inferences are statistical or numerical conclusions that follow from statements expressing quantitative relationships. Such relationships are often expressed in a rather confusing manner, so it can be challenging to ensure that such an inference follows from the given statements.
Given statements:
Half of the children in the class wore jackets today, but there are only a quarter as many coat hooks in the classroom as children in the class. Furthermore, the teacher and the teacher"s assistant both always hang up their jackets on coat hooks.
Possible inferences:
Most of the children who wore jackets to class today aren"t able to hang them on coat hooks.
(Valid statistical inference. Half of the children wore jackets, but there are only a quarter as many hooks as there are children. Therefore, there are half as many hooks as there are children with jackets. Two hooks are taken up by the teacher and the teacher"s assistant. Therefore, there are less than half as many available hooks as there are children with jackets. So most – more than half – of the children with jackets won"t get hooks.)
Objects other than jackets (like backpacks) must take up fewer than a quarter of the coat hooks in the classroom.
(Invalid statistical inference. The only restriction on how these coat hooks are used is that the teacher and the teacher"s assistant each hang their jackets on one hook. While the remaining hooks might be taken up by children"s jackets, they could also be taken up by other objects. While it seems likely that students might hang up their jackets rather than other objects on these hooks, the statements don"t provide adequate support for this inference.)
Explaining observed events
A set of statements may describe an event or events without providing a sufficient explanation for how the event came to occur. An unexplained sequence of events may be explained by a third statement describing a connection between the events.
There is often no single acceptable explanation for a given event. Rather, an event might be validly explained by several different additional statements.
Last night, as I went to sleep, I?heard a thunderstorm beginning. When I?went outside in the morning, the plants in my garden were all knocked to the ground.
Several additional facts might explain how this thunderstorm led to the destruction of plants.
Valid
The thunderstorm featured a brief but intense hailstorm that destroyed plants all over the neighborhood.
A plant-destroying hailstorm that was part of the thunderstorm is a reasonable explanation for how the thunderstorm caused plants to be knocked to the ground.
Valid
The thunderstorm drove several deer to seek cover in my backyard, trampling everything in their path.
?
The thunderstorm caused deer to trample everything in the yard. This is a reasonable explanation for how the thunderstorm caused plants to be knocked to the ground.
?
Invalid
It"s currently the summer, and thunderstorms occur most often during this season.
Addresses only the likelihood of thunderstorms.
Invalid
My backyard is full of groundhogs, which are notorious for knocking over plants.
Provides an alternative explanation for the destruction of plants. Neither of these describe a connection between the thunderstorm and the destruction of plants.
?
Method of argumentAn argument uses evidence (statements of fact) and assumptions (unstated ideas) to reach a conclusion (the argument"s final judgment).
Arguments may cite many types of evidence, but certain methods of reasoning are particularly effective and are therefore used particularly frequently.
Such methods of reasoning include:
Citing an authority
Four out of five dentists recommend Superpaste toothpaste. Therefore, Superpaste must truly be the best toothpaste.
This argument cites the evidence of the opinions of dentists,?experts?in the field of toothpaste.
Providing an analogy
Superpaste is commonly accepted as the best toothpaste. Superfloss was designed to the same exacting standards of oral hygiene, so it must be the best floss.
This argument cites the evidence of an?analogy, the high quality of Superpaste, to support the argument that Superfloss is similarly high in quality.
?
Some common methods of reasoning to counter an argument include:
Noting ulterior motives
You should not trust Superpaste salespeople"s argument that Superpaste is high in quality. These salespeople are paid by commission, so they will tell you anything to sell you toothpaste.
This argument cites the evidence of an?ulterior motive, the financial incentive to sell toothpaste, that casts doubt on the trustworthiness of Superpaste salespeople who argue that Superpaste is high in quality.
Pointing out unconsidered consequences
Superpaste is indeed the best toothpaste for preventing cavities. But what Superpaste salespeople don"t tell you is that it turns some users" teeth blue.
This argument cites the evidence of the?unconsidered consequence?of turning users" teeth blue to cast doubt on the argument that Superpaste is high in quality.
Demonstrating a logical inconsistency
Children need a high-fluoride toothpaste, while most adults should use a toothpaste with low to moderate amounts of fluoride. Therefore, it"s logically inconsistent to claim the Superpaste is the best possible toothpaste for both children and adults.
This argument illustrates a?logical inconsistency?of the argument that Superpaste is best for both children and adults. It provides evidence showing that this claim cannot be true.
Run-on sentences
A run-on sentence is a compound sentence that lacks the proper punctuation between the independent clauses that make up the sentence.
The independent clauses that make up a compound sentence must be separated by a semicolon, a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and,?but,?or,?nor,?for,?so, or?yet), or occasionally a colon. Any other punctuation results in a run-on sentence.
Run-on sentences should be corrected either by combining the sentences using proper compound sentence punctuation or by separating independent clauses into two complete sentences.
?
?
Run-on
John made the?decorations Amy?purchased ice and snacks.
The independent clauses?John made the decorations?and?Amy purchased ice and snacksare not separated by any conjunction or punctuation at all.
Complete Sentence
John made the decorations; Amy?purchased ice and snacks.
The independent clauses?John made the decorations?and?Amy purchased ice and snacksare now separated by a semicolon.
?
Run-on
The?boy whistled and his dog came?running.
The independent clauses?the boy whistled?andhis dog came running?are separated by the conjunction?and?without any punctuation. This is not correct.
Complete Sentence
The?boy whistled, and his dog came?running.
The independent clauses?The boy whistledand?his dog came running?are now properly separated by a comma and a coordinating conjunction,?and.
??
Run-on
Birds are beautiful creatures, moreover, they are highly intelligent.
The independent clauses?birds are beautiful creatures?and?they are highly intelligent?are separated by a comma without a coordinating conjunction. The conjunctive adverb?moreoverdoes not provide sufficient separation between these two independent clauses. This is not correct.
Complete Sentence
Birds are beautiful creatures. Moreover, they are highly intelligent.
The independent clauses?birds are beautiful creatures?and?moreover,?they are highly intelligent?are expressed as individual complete sentences
?
Sentence fragments
A fragment is a word group that looks like a complete sentence but that is actually only a part of a sentence. Only independent clauses and combinations of independent clauses can function as complete sentences.
Some fragments lack a subject, a main verb, or both.
Walked to and fro in his room.
This sentence has a main verb,?walked, but no subject.
John, a successful real-estate attorney and all-around good guy.
This sentence has a subject,?John, but no verb.
Near the lake.
This sentence has neither a subject nor a main verb.
?
Other fragments have a subject and a main verb but are not independent clauses.
Until she lost her keys last week.
This word group has a subject,?she,?and?a?main verb,?lost. However, the introductory subordinating conjunction?until?makes this a fragment.
?
Many fragments can be corrected by connecting them to a nearby sentence.
?
Fragment
Jill explained the issue in detail to Molly.Changing Molly"s mind about the side that she should support.
The second word group above is a fragment. This word group has neither a subject nor a main verb;?changing?is a participle.
Complete sentence
Jill explained the issue in detail to Molly,changing?Molly"s mind about the side that she should support.
Connecting the second sentence to the first makes this a complete sentence.
?
Subject-verb agreement with intervening phrases and clauses
Every subject must agree with its corresponding verb in number. Singular subjects agree with singular verbs, and plural subjects agree with plural verbs.?
Because this rule is pretty straightforward, the GMAT likes to disguise subject-verb agreement in three main ways.
?By injecting filler, like prepositional phrases and modifying clauses, between the subject-verb pair
?By using tricky subjects, like collective nouns or indefinite pronouns
?By inverting a sentence, or placing the subject?after?its verb
Ignore the filler between a subject and its verb.
The picture needs to be dusted.
It is easy to see that the subject of the sentence above is the singular noun?picture. The singular noun agrees with the singular verb?needs. (Remember: Singular verbs end in -s; plural verbs do not.)
The picture of flowers, which is hanging on the wall between the windows, needs to be dusted.
The picture?is still the subject of the sentence above!
Any time options on a Sentence Correction question differ because one uses the singular form of the verb and one uses the plural form, subject-verb agreement is being tested. Find the subject, determine whether it is singular or plural, and choose the correct form of the verb.
?Ignore prepositional phrases when checking for the subject and verb. A main subject will?neverbe inside of a prepositional phrase.
?Ignore adjective clauses when checking for the main subject-verb pair. Each adjective clause contains its own subject and verb, and this subject-verb pair must also agree. Adjective clauses begin with?which, that, who,?whose,?and?whom.
?Ignore anything set off by commas after the subject when checking for subject-verb agreement.
?Ignore describing phrases that come between a subject and a verb. Describing phrases come right after the noun they describe and often begin with -ing words.
The GMAT loves to put a noun that is opposite in number of a verb"s subject before this verb. For example:
Incorrect:?The picture of flowers are beautiful.
Correct:?The picture of flowers is beautiful.?
The incorrect sentence above may seem right, because the plural?flowers?comes right before the pluralare. However, the subject is the singular?picture. Don"t be fooled just because a singular noun is next to a singular verb, or a plural noun is next to a plural verb; the verb"s?subject?may in fact be quite far from the verb. If you"re having a hard time finding the subject, spot the verb and think:?Who or what performs or corresponds to this action?
Take home points:
?Ignore the filler between a subject and verb. The GMAT loves to inject modifiers between a subject and a verb. Identify the subject and verb every time you read a sentence. Ignorable modifiers include prepositional phrases, adjective clauses, and participial phrases.
?Any time options on a Sentence Correction question differ because one uses the singular form of the verb and one uses the plural form, subject-verb agreement is being tested. Find the subject, determine whether it is singular or plural, and choose the correct form of the verb.
Inverted sentence structures
Every subject must agree with its corresponding verb in number. Singular subjects agree with singular verbs, and plural subjects agree with plural verbs.?
Because this rule is pretty straightforward, the GMAT likes to disguise subject verb agreement in three main ways:
?By injecting filler, like prepositional phrases and modifying clauses, between the subject-verb pair
?By using tricky subjects, like collective nouns or indefinite pronouns
?By inverting a sentence, or placing the subject?after?its verb
When a subject comes?after?its verb:
Typically, a subject comes?before?its verb.
However, when a modifying phrase, like a prepositional phrase, is the only element in a sentence before the verb, the subject must come after the verb.? Take a look at the sentences below:
Heavy is the head that wears the crown.
軍機(jī)處： 官署名。清代輔佐皇帝的政務(wù)機(jī)構(gòu)。雍正七年(1729)，因與準(zhǔn)噶爾部作戰(zhàn)，為了軍務(wù)，設(shè)立軍機(jī)房，挑選內(nèi)閣中謹(jǐn)慎可靠的中書辦理機(jī)密事務(wù)，1732年，又改稱軍機(jī)處。乾隆后，成為定制，并漸漸成為最高中樞機(jī)構(gòu)。軍機(jī)處的中樞地位和作用超過了內(nèi)閣，但始終不是個獨(dú)立的、正式的衙門。軍機(jī)大臣，大臣無定員，由皇帝從內(nèi)閣大學(xué)士、六部尚書、侍郎中特簡任用。軍機(jī)處設(shè)軍機(jī)章京，，各八人，輪流擔(dān)任繕寫詔旨、記載檔案、查核奏議等具體工作。又有軍機(jī)行走，人值辦事。軍立后，議政王大臣會議被廢止，標(biāo)志著清代君主集權(quán)發(fā)展到了頂點(diǎn)。
安史之亂 安史之亂是玄宗末年邊鎮(zhèn)守將安祿山和史思明掀起的反唐叛亂。玄宗天寶十四年(公元755年)十一月，身兼平盧(今遼寧朝陽)、范陽(今北京)、河?xùn)|（今山西太原西南）三鎮(zhèn)節(jié)度使的安祿山以誅殺奸臣楊國忠為名起兵反唐。763年成功平叛。安、史叛亂雖然被撲滅，但是長期的戰(zhàn)爭缺使社會生產(chǎn)遭到了極大的破壞，開元盛世所積累的社會財富一時消耗殆盡。安史之亂后，大唐王朝再也沒有了昔日的繁榮富強(qiáng)，成為由盛轉(zhuǎn)衰的轉(zhuǎn)折點(diǎn)。
紹興和議 南宋與金訂立的和約。紹興十一年（1141），宋金議和簽訂條約，但和議確定了宋金之間政治上的不平等關(guān)系，結(jié)束了長達(dá)十余年的戰(zhàn)爭狀況，形成了南北對峙的局面。
玄武門之變： 玄武門之變是唐初李世民兄弟爭奪皇位繼承權(quán)的政變。唐高祖李淵稱帝后，立長子李建成太子，次竺民苧秦王。但在建立唐朝的過程中，李世民戰(zhàn)功卓越，大大威脅了李建成的地位。太子為鞏固自己位，拉攏四弟李元吉共同對付李世民。雙方結(jié)黨營私，斗爭愈演愈烈。武德九年(626)六月四日，苧先發(fā)制人，設(shè)伏于宮城北門玄武門，將一同參加早朝的李建成、李元吉射殺，并挾持了唐高祖，發(fā)變奪權(quán)，史稱“玄武門之變”；玄武門之變后，李世民被立為太子，之后，李淵被迫交出實權(quán)，李世式即位，是為唐太宗
改土歸流 改土歸流是指改土司制為流官制。土司即原民族的首領(lǐng)，流官由中央政府委派。中國清代
雍正年間在西南一些少數(shù)民族地區(qū)廢除土司制，實行流官制的政治改革。為了解決土司割據(jù)的積弊，雍正四年（1726），云貴總督鄂爾泰建議取消土司世襲制度，設(shè)立府、廳、州、縣，派遣有一定任期的流官進(jìn)行管理。雍正帝對此甚為贊賞，令其悉心辦理。六年，又命貴州按察使張廣泗在黔東南推行改土歸流政策。在廢除土司世襲制度時，對土司本人，根據(jù)他們的態(tài)度給以不同的處理。對自動交印者，酌加賞賜，或予世職，或給現(xiàn)任武職。對抗拒者加以懲處，沒收財產(chǎn)，并將其遷徙到內(nèi)地省份，另給田房安排生活。在設(shè)立府縣的同時，添設(shè)事機(jī)構(gòu)。清政府在改土歸流地區(qū)清查戶口，丈量土地，征收賦稅，建城池，設(shè)學(xué)校；同時廢除原來土司的賦役制度，與內(nèi)地一樣，按地畝征稅，數(shù)額一般少于內(nèi)地，土民所受的剝削稍輕。
行省制 這是中國古代地方行政制度之一。行省，亦稱行中書省，元朝地方官署名，為中書省派駐于地方的機(jī)構(gòu)，元朝建立后，設(shè)十路宣撫司為地方最高行政機(jī)構(gòu)，另委派中書省官員分赴各地辦理具體事務(wù)，行使中書省權(quán)力。初因事而設(shè)，后逐漸成為轄有一定區(qū)域的常設(shè)機(jī)構(gòu)。凡錢糧、兵事、農(nóng)耕、漕運(yùn)等事務(wù)，均受其管理。全國除“腹里”（今河北、山東、山西地區(qū)）直隸中書省，吐蕃地區(qū)受宣政院管轄外，其余地區(qū)設(shè)有嶺北、遼陽、河南、陜西、四川、云南、甘肅、江浙、江西、湖廣等行省。行省長官為丞相，行省之下分路、府、州、縣，在邊遠(yuǎn)地區(qū)分道設(shè)臵宣慰司。明初，沿襲元制，于地方設(shè)行中書省，臵平章政事和左右丞相，總管一省軍、政、司法。洪武九年（1368年），廢行中書省，在全國陸續(xù)設(shè)臵十三個承宣布政使司，簡稱布政司。臵左右承宣布政使各一人，掌管一省民政和財政；設(shè)提刑按擦使司，掌司法；都指揮使司，掌軍隊。合稱“三司”。清，沿襲之。
八旗制度 中國清代滿族的社會組織形式。滿族的先世女真人以射獵為業(yè)，每年到采捕季節(jié)，以氏族村寨為單位，由有名望的人當(dāng)首領(lǐng)，這種以血緣和地緣為單位進(jìn)行集體狩獵的組織形式，稱為牛錄制。總領(lǐng)稱為牛錄額真，努爾哈赤于明歷二十九年建立黃、白、紅、藍(lán)四旗，稱為正黃、正白、正紅、正藍(lán)，旗皆純色。四十三年，努爾哈赤為適應(yīng)滿族社會發(fā)展的需要，在原有牛錄制的基礎(chǔ)上，創(chuàng)建了八旗制度，即在原有的四旗之外，增編鑲黃、鑲白、鑲紅、鑲藍(lán)四旗。把后金管轄下的所有人都編在旗內(nèi)。八旗制度的特點(diǎn)是以旗統(tǒng)人，即以旗統(tǒng)兵。凡隸于八旗者皆可以為兵。八旗制度從正式建立到1911年辛亥革命后清朝覆滅，共存在296年。它是清王朝統(tǒng)治全國的重要軍事支柱，
四時捺缽（bó）； 四時捺缽是流動的國家政治中心。四時捺缽制是契丹在國家政治生活中保留的一項特殊制度和文化習(xí)俗，四時即指一年中的春、夏、秋、冬。捺缽亦稱納巴、刺缽等，指遼朝皇帝貴族們所從事的與契丹民族游牧習(xí)俗相關(guān)的行在、營地遷徙和游牧、漁獵等活動，是在遼朝初期因俗而治”的二元政治體制下的客觀延續(xù)。
驅(qū)口： 金時已有“驅(qū)口”一詞，簡稱“驅(qū)”，指戰(zhàn)爭中“被俘獲驅(qū)使之人”。他們當(dāng)中除戰(zhàn)俘外，還有因債務(wù)或犯罪所致，也有迫于租賦或饑荒而賣身為“驅(qū)”的，驅(qū)口另有戶籍，稱驅(qū)戶、驅(qū)丁，和一般編民有別，在法律上，驅(qū)口“與錢物同”，是主人財產(chǎn)的一部分，主人可以隨便買賣和饋贈，驅(qū)口一部分用于手工業(yè)生產(chǎn)和家內(nèi)勞動，大部分則從事農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)。
推薦訪問： 名詞解釋 莫里 精選在偉大祖國73華誕之際，我參加了單位組織的“光影鑄魂”主題黨日活動，集中觀看了抗美援朝題材影片《長津湖》，再一次重溫這段悲壯歷史，再一次深刻感悟偉大抗美援朝精神。1950年10月，新中國剛剛成立一年，
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